Comoros
Comoros
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This
article is about the country. For the archipelago, see Comoro Islands.
The Comoros (/ˈkɒməroʊz/ (
listen); Arabic: جزر القمر, Juzur
al-Qumur / Qamar), officially the Union of the Comoros (Comorian: Udzima
wa Komori, French: Union
des Comores, Arabic: الاتحاد القمري al-Ittiḥād al-Qumurī / Qamarī), is an island country in
the Indian Ocean located
at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel off
the eastern coast of Africa.
It shares maritime borders with Madagascar and
the French region of Mayotte to
the southeast, Tanzania to
the northwest, Mozambique to
the west, and the Seychelles to
the northeast. The capital and largest city in Comoros is Moroni.
In addition, the religion of the majority of the population, and the official
state religion, is Sunni Islam. As a member of the Arab League,
the Comoros is the only country in the Arab world which
is entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.
It is also a member state of the African Union,
the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie,
the Organisation
of Islamic Cooperation, and the Indian
Ocean Commission. Furthermore, the
Union of the Comoros has three official languages—Comorian,
French, and Arabic.
At 1,861 km2 (719 sq mi),
excluding the contested island of Mayotte, the Comoros is the fourth-smallest
African nation by area. The population, excluding Mayotte, is estimated at
832,322 as of 2018.[4][5] As
a nation formed at a crossroads of different civilisations, the archipelago is
noted for its diverse culture and history.
The sovereign state is
an archipelago consisting
of three major islands and numerous smaller islands, all in the volcanic Comoro Islands.
The major islands are commonly known by their French names:
northwesternmost Grande Comore (Ngazidja), Mohéli (Mwali),
and Anjouan (Ndzuani).
In addition, the country has a claim on a fourth major island, southeasternmost
Mayotte (Maore), though Mayotte voted against independence from France in 1974,
since it has never been administered by an independent Comoros government, and
continues to be administered by France (currently as an overseas department).
France has vetoed United
Nations Security Council resolutions that
would affirm Comorian sovereignty over
the island.[6][7][8][9] In
addition, Mayotte became an overseas department and a region of France in 2011
following a referendum passed overwhelmingly.
The archipelago was
first settled by Bantu speakers
who came from East Africa, Arabs and Austronesians.
It then became part of the French
colonial empire during the
19th century, before becoming independent in 1975. Since declaring independence,
the country has experienced more than 20 coups d'état or
attempted coups, with various heads of state assassinated.[10][11] Along
with this constant political instability, the population of the Comoros lives
with the worst income
inequality of any nation, with a Gini coefficient over
60%, while also ranking in the worst quartile on
the Human
Development Index. As of
2008 about half the population lived below the international
poverty line of US$1.25 a day.[12] The
French insular region of Mayotte, which is the most prosperous territory in the
Mozambique Channel, is a major destination for migrants from
the independent islands.
Contents
·
2History
o
2.3European contact and French colonisation
·
5Economy
·
7Health
·
9Culture
o
9.2Kinship and social structure
o
9.3Music
o
9.4Media
Etymology[edit]
The name
"Comoros" derives from the Arabic word قمر qamar ("moon").[13]
History[edit]
Main
article: History
of the Comoros
Settlement[edit]
A
large dhow with lateen sail
rigs
A vanilla plantation
According to
mythology, a jinni (spirit)
dropped a jewel,
which formed a great circular inferno. This became the Karthala volcano,
which created the island of Grande Comoro. King Solomon is also said to have
visited the island.
The first attested
human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are now thought to have been Austronesian settlers
travelling by boat from islands
in Southeast Asia.[14][15] These
people arrived no later than the eighth century AD, the date of the earliest
known archaeological site,
found on Mayotte,
although settlement beginning as early as the first century has been
postulated.[16]
Subsequent settlers
came from the east coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf,
the Malay Archipelago,
and Madagascar. Bantu-speaking
settlers were present on the islands from the beginnings of settlement,
probably brought to the islands as slaves.[17]
Development of the
Comoros is divided into phases. The earliest reliably recorded phase is the
Dembeni phase (eighth to tenth centuries), during which there were several
small settlements on each island.[18] From
the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar
and merchants from the Swahili coast and the Middle East flourished,
more villages were founded and existing villages grew. Many Comorians can trace
their genealogies to ancestors from the Arabian peninsula, particularly Hadhramaut,
who arrived during this period.
Medieval Comoros[edit]
According to
legend, in 632, upon hearing of Islam,
islanders are said to have dispatched an emissary, Mtswa-Mwindza, to Mecca—but
by the time he arrived there, the Prophet Muhammad had
died. Nonetheless, after a stay in Mecca, he returned to Ngazidja and led the
gradual conversion of his islanders to Islam.[19]
Among the earliest
accounts of East Africa, the works of Al-Masudi describe
early Islamic trade routes, and how the coast and islands were frequently
visited by Muslims including Persian and Arab merchants
and sailors in search of coral, ambergris, ivory, tortoiseshell, gold and
slaves. They also brought Islam to the people of the Zanj including
the Comoros. As the importance of the Comoros grew along the East African
coast, both small and large mosques were
constructed. The Comoros are part of the Swahili cultural
and economic complex and the islands became a major hub of trade and an
important location in a network of trading towns that included Kilwa,
in present-day Tanzania, Sofala (an outlet for Zimbabwean gold),
in Mozambique,
and Mombasa in Kenya.[18]
The Portuguese arrived
in the Indian Ocean at the end of the 15th century and the first Portuguese
visit to the islands seems to have been that of Vasco da Gama's second fleet in
1503.[20] For
much of the 16th century the islands provided provisions to the Portuguese fort
at Mozambique and although there was no formal attempt by the Portuguese crown
to take possession, a number of Portuguese traders settled.
By the end of the
16th century the local rulers were beginning to push back and, with the support
of the Omani Sultan Saif bin Sultan they
began to defeat the Dutch and
the Portuguese. His successor Said bin Sultan increased
Omani Arab influence in the region, moving his administration to nearby Zanzibar,
which came under Omani rule.
Nevertheless, the Comoros remained independent, and although the three smaller
islands were usually politically unified, the largest island, Ngazidja, was
divided into a number of autonomous kingdoms (ntsi).[21]
By the time
Europeans showed interest in the Comoros, the islanders were well placed to
take advantage of their needs, initially supplying ships of the route to India,
particularly the English and, later, slaves to the plantation islands in
the Mascarenes.[22][21]
European contact and French colonisation[edit]
French
map of the Comores, 1747
An
1808 map refers to the islands as "Camora".
A
public square, Moroni, 1908
In the last decade
of the 18th century, Malagasy warriors, mostly Betsimisaraka and Sakalava,
started raiding the Comoros for slaves and
the islands were devastated as crops were destroyed and the people were
slaughtered, taken into captivity or fled to the African mainland: it is said
that by the time the raids finally ended in the second decade of the 19th
century only one man remained on Mwali.[23] The
islands were repopulated by slaves from the mainland, who were traded to the
French in Mayotte and the Mascarenes. On the Comoros, it was estimated in 1865
that as much as 40% of the population consisted of slaves.[24]
France first
established colonial rule
in the Comoros by taking possession of Mayotte in 1841 when the Sakalava usurper
sultan Andriantsoly (also
known as Tsy Levalo) signed the Treaty of April 1841,[25] which
ceded the island to the French authorities.[26]
Meanwhile, Ndzuani
(or Johanna as it was know to the British) continued to serve as a way station
for English merchants sailing to India and the Far East, as well as American
whalers, although the British gradually abandoned it following their possession
of Mauritius in 1814 and by the time the Suez Canal opened
in 1869 there was no longer any significant supply trade at Ndzuani. Local commodities
exported by the Comoros were, in addition to slaves, coconuts,
timber, cattle and tortoiseshell. French settlers, French-owned companies, and
wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that used about
one-third of the land for export crops. After its annexation, France converted
Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. The other islands were soon transformed
as well, and the major crops of ylang-ylang, vanilla, cloves, perfume
plants, coffee, cocoa beans,
and sisal were
introduced.[27]
In 1886, Mwali was
placed under French protection by its Sultan Mardjani Abdou Cheikh. That same
year, despite having no authority to do so, Sultan Said Ali of Bambao,
one of the sultanates on Ngazidja, placed the island under French protection in
exchange for French support of his claim to the entire island, which he
retained until his abdication in 1910. In 1908 the islands were unified under a
single administration (Colonie de Mayotte et dépendances) and placed
under the authority of the French colonial governor general of Madagascar. In
1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Ndzuani abdicated in favour of French rule. In
1912 the colony and the protectorates were abolished and the islands became a
province of the colony of Madagascar.[28]
Agreement was
reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978,
despite the deputies of Mayotte voting
for increased integration with France. A referendum was held on all four of the
islands. Three voted for independence by large margins, while Mayotte voted
against, and remains under French administration. On 6 July 1975, however, the
Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence.
Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the independence of the Comorian State (État
comorien; دولة القمر) and became its first president.
Independence (1975)[edit]
Flag of the Comoros (1963
to 1975)
Flag of the Comoros (1975
to 1978)
Ikililou Dhoinine, President of
Comoros from 2011 to 2016
The next 30 years
were a period of political turmoil. On 3 August 1975, less than one month after
independence, president Ahmed Abdallah was
removed from office in an armed coup and replaced with United National Front of
the Comoros (FNUK) member Prince Said Mohamed Jaffar.
Months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favour of his Minister of
Defense Ali Soilih.[29]
The population
of Mayotte voted
against independence from France in three referenda during this period.
The first,
held on all the islands on 22 December 1974, won 63.8% support for maintaining
ties with France on Mayotte; the second,
held in February 1976, confirmed that vote with an overwhelming 99.4%, while
the third, in April 1976, confirmed that the people of Mayotte wished to remain
a French territory. The three remaining islands, ruled by President Soilih,
instituted a number of socialist and
isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On 13 May
1978, Bob Denard returned
to overthrow President Soilih and reinstate Abdallah with the support of the
French, Rhodesian and South African governments. During Soilih's brief rule, he
faced seven additional coup attempts until he was finally forced from office
and killed.[29][30]
In contrast to
Soilih, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased
adherence to traditional Islam[31] and
the country was renamed the Federal Islamic Republic of
the Comoros (République Fédérale Islamique des Comores; جمهورية القمر
الإتحادية الإسلامية). Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing
a probable coup d'état,
he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to
disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was
allegedly shot dead in his office by a disgruntled military officer, though
later sources claim an antitank missile was launched into his bedroom and
killed him.[32] Although
Denard was also injured, it is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier
under his command.[33]
A few days later,
Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers. Said Mohamed Djohar,
Soilih's older half-brother, then became president, and served until September
1995, when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. This time France
intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender.[34][35] The
French removed Djohar to Reunion, and the Paris-backed Mohamed
Taki Abdoulkarim became
president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labour
crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until his death
November 1998. He was succeeded by Interim President Tadjidine
Ben Said Massounde.[36]
The islands
of Ndzuani and Mwali declared
their independence from the Comoros in 1997, in an attempt to restore French
rule. But France rejected their request, leading to bloody confrontations
between federal troops and rebels.[37] In
April 1999, Colonel Azali Assoumani,
Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a bloodless coup, overthrowing the Interim
President Massounde, citing weak leadership in the face of the crisis. This was
the Comoros' 18th coup, or attempted coup d'état since independence in 1975.[38]
Azali failed to
consolidate power and reestablish control over the islands, which was the
subject of international criticism. The African Union,
under the auspices of President Thabo Mbeki of
South Africa, imposed sanctions on Ndzuani to help broker negotiations and
effect reconciliation.[39][40] Under
the terms of the Fomboni Accords, signed in December 2001 by the leaders of all
three islands, the official name of the country was changed to the Union of the
Comoros; the new state was to be highly decentralised and the central union
government would devolve most powers to the new island governments, each lead
by a president. The Union president, although elected by national elections,
would be chosen in rotation from each of the islands every five years.
Azali stepped down
in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoros,
which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had
originally come to power by force, and was not always democratic while in
office, Azali led the Comoros through constitutional changes that enabled new
elections.[41] A Loi
des compétences law was passed in early 2005 that defines the responsibilities
of each governmental body, and is in the process of implementation. The
elections in 2006 were won by Ahmed
Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, a Sunni Muslim
cleric nicknamed the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in
Iran. Azali honoured the election results, thus allowing the first peaceful and
democratic exchange of power for the archipelago.[42]
Colonel Mohammed Bacar,
a French-trained former gendarme elected President of Ndzuani in 2001, refused
to step down at the end of his five-year mandate. He staged a vote in June 2007
to confirm his leadership that was rejected as illegal by the Comoros federal
government and the African Union. On 25 March 2008 hundreds of soldiers from
the African Union and the Comoros seized rebel-held Ndzuani, generally welcomed
by the population: there have been reports of hundreds, if not thousands, of
people tortured during Bacar's tenure.[43] Some
rebels were killed and injured, but there are no official figures. At least 11
civilians were wounded. Some officials were imprisoned. Bacar fled in a
speedboat to the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte to seek asylum.
Anti-French protests followed in the Comoros (see 2008
invasion of Anjouan). Bacar was
eventually granted asylum in Benin.
Since independence
from France, the Comoros experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups.[10]
Following elections
in late 2010, former Vice-President Ikililou Dhoinine was
inaugurated as president on 26 May 2011. A member of the ruling party, Dhoinine
was supported in the election by the incumbent President Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed
Sambi. Dhoinine, a pharmacist by training, is the first President of the
Comoros from the island of Mwali. Following the 2016 elections, Azali
Assoumani, from Ngazidja, became president for a third term. In 2018 Azali held
a referendum on constitutional reform that would permit a president to serve
two terms. The amendments passed, although the vote was widely contested and
boycotted by the opposition, and in April 2019, and to widespread opposition,
Azali was re-elected president to serve the first of potentially two five-year
terms.
Geography[edit]
Main
article: Geography
of the Comoros
A
map of the Comoros
The Comoros is
formed by Ngazidja (Grande
Comore), Mwali (Mohéli)
and Ndzuani (Anjouan),
three major islands in the Comoros Archipelago, as well as many minor islets.
The islands are officially known by their Comorian language names, though
international sources still use their French names (given in parentheses
above). The capital and largest city, Moroni,
is located on Ngazidja. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, in
the Mozambique Channel,
between the African coast (nearest to Mozambique and Tanzania)
and Madagascar,
with no land borders.
At 1,861 km2 (719 sq mi),
it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The Comoros also has claim to
320 km2 (120 sq mi) of territorial seas. The
interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills.
The areas and
populations (at the 2017 Census) of the main islands are as follows:[44]
|
Name |
Area |
Population |
|
Mwali |
290 |
51,567 |
|
Njazidja |
1,147 |
379,367 |
|
Nzwani |
424 |
327,382 |
|
Totals |
1,861 |
758,316 |
Ngazidja is the
largest of the Comoros Archipelago, with an area of 1,147 km2.
It is also the most recent island, and therefore has rocky soil. The island's
two volcanoes, Karthala (active)
and La Grille (dormant),
and the lack of good harbours are distinctive characteristics of its terrain.
Mwali, with its capital at Fomboni,
is the smallest of the four major islands. Ndzuani, whose capital is Mutsamudu,
has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain chains – Shisiwani, Nioumakele and Jimilime –
emanating from a central peak, Mount Ntingui (1,575 m
or 5,167 ft).
The islands of the
Comoros Archipelago were formed by volcanic activity. Mount Karthala, an
active shield volcano located
on Ngazidja, is the country's highest point, at 2,361 metres (7,746 feet). It contains
the Comoros' largest patch of disappearing rainforest. Karthala is currently
one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with a minor eruption in May
2006, and prior eruptions as recently as April 2005 and 1991. In the 2005
eruption, which lasted from 17 to 19 April, 40,000 citizens were evacuated, and
the crater lake in
the volcano's 3 by 4 kilometres (1.9 by 2.5 miles) caldera was
destroyed.
The Comoros also
lays claim to the Îles Éparses or Îles éparses de l'océan indien (Scattered
Islands in the Indian Ocean) – Glorioso Islands,
comprising Grande Glorieuse, Île du Lys, Wreck
Rock, South
Rock, Verte
Rocks (three islets) and three unnamed islets – one of
France's overseas districts. The Glorioso Islands were administered by the
colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of
the Comoros Archipelago. Banc du Geyser,
a former island in the Comoros Archipelago, now submerged, is geographically
located in the Îles Éparses, but was annexed by Madagascar in
1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros and France each still view the Banc
du Geyser as part of the Glorioso Islands and, thus, part of its particular
exclusive economic zone.
Climate[edit]
Main
article: Moroni, Comoros § Geography
and climate
The climate is
generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by
their raininess. The temperature reaches an average of 29–30 °C
(84–86 °F) in March, the hottest month in the rainy season (called
kashkazi/kaskazi [meaning north monsoon], which runs from December to April),
and an average low of 19 °C (66 °F) in the cool, dry season (kusi
(meaning south monsoon), which proceeds from May to November).[45] The
islands are rarely subject to cyclones.
Ecology and environment[edit]
See
also: Moheli
Marine Park
The Comoros
constitute an ecoregion in
their own right, Comoros forests.[46]
In December 1952 a
specimen of the coelacanth fish
was re-discovered off the Comoros coast. The 66 million-year-old species was
thought to have been long extinct until its first recorded appearance in 1938
off the South African coast.[47] Between
1938 and 1975, 84 specimens were caught and recorded.[48]
Government[edit]
Main
article: Politics
of the Comoros
Moroni,
capital of the Comoros, with the port and Badjanani Mosque
Politics of the
Comoros takes place in a framework of a federal presidential republic,
whereby the President
of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government,
and of a multi-party system.
The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on 23
December 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in
the following months. It had previously been considered a military
dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah
Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was a watershed moment as it was the first peaceful
transfer in Comorian history.
Executive power is
exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is
vested in both the government and
parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration
in governance, a commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated
rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians.[49] Each
of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount
of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental
Law), president, and Parliament. The presidency and Assembly of the Union are
distinct from each of the islands' governments. The presidency of the Union
rotates between the islands.[50] Despite
widespread misgivings about the durability of the system of presidential
rotation, Ngazidja holds the current presidency rotation, and Azali is President
of the Union; Ndzuani is in theory to provide the next president.[51]
Legal system[edit]
The Comorian legal system rests
on Islamic law,
an inherited French (Napoleonic Code)
legal code, and customary law (mila na ntsi). Village elders, kadis or civilian
courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is
independent of the legislative and
the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving
constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court
of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is
accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by
the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of
each island.[50]
Political culture[edit]
Around 80 percent
of the central government's annual budget is spent on the country's complex
electoral system which provides for a semi-autonomous government and president
for each of the three islands and a rotating presidency for the overarching
Union government.[52] A
referendum took place on 16 May 2009 to decide whether to cut down the
government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and
93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum. Following the
implementation of the changes, each island's president became a governor and
the ministers became councillors.[53]
Foreign relations[edit]
Main
article: Foreign
relations of the Comoros
In November 1975,
the Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations.
The new nation was defined as comprising the entire archipelago,
although the citizens of Mayotte chose
to become French citizens and keep their island as a French territory.[54]
The Comoros has
repeatedly pressed its claim to Mayotte before the United
Nations General Assembly, which adopted a
series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island
of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to the Comoros under the
principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be
preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions
have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will
become de facto part of the Comoros without its people's
consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but
deferred it from year to year without taking action. Other bodies, including
the Organization
of African Unity, the Movement of
Non-Aligned Countries and the Organisation
of Islamic Cooperation, have similarly
questioned French sovereignty over Mayotte.[6][55] To
close the debate and to avoid being integrated by force in the Union of the
Comoros, the population of Mayotte overwhelmingly chose to become an overseas department and
a region of France in
a 2009
referendum. The new status was effective on
31 March 2011 and Mayotte has been recognised as an outermost region by
the European Union on
1 January 2014. This decision legally integrates Mayotte in the French Republic.
The Comoros is a
member of the African Union,
the Arab League,
the European
Development Fund, the World Bank,
the International
Monetary Fund, the Indian
Ocean Commission and the African
Development Bank. On 10 April 2008,
the Comoros became the 179th nation to accept the Kyoto Protocol to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.[56] The
Comoros signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[57]
In May 2013 the
Union of the Comoros became known for filing a referral to the Office of the
Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding the events of
"the 31 May 2010 Israeli raid on the Humanitarian Aid Flotilla bound for
[the] Gaza Strip". In November 2014 the ICC Prosecutor eventually decided[58] that
the events did constitute war crimes but did not meet the gravity standards of
bringing the case before ICC.[59]
The emigration rate
of skilled workers was about 21.2% in 2000.[60]
Military[edit]
Main
article: Military
of the Comoros
The military
resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member
police force, as well as a 500-member defence force. A defence treaty with
France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training
of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a few
senior officers presence in the Comoros at government request. France maintains
a small maritime base and a Foreign
Legion Detachment (DLEM) on Mayotte.
Once the new government
was installed in May–June 2011, an expert mission from UNREC (Lomé) came to the
Comoros and produced guidelines for the elaboration of a national security
policy, which were discussed by different actors, notably the national defence
authorities and civil society.[61] By
the end of the programme in end March 2012, a normative framework agreed upon
by all entities involved in SSR will have been established. This will then have
to be adopted by Parliament and implemented by the authorities.
Human rights[edit]
Main
article: Human
rights in the Comoros
Both male and
female same-sex
sexual acts are illegal in Comoros.[62] Such
acts are punished with up to five years imprisonment.[63]
Economy[edit]
Main
article: Economy
of the Comoros
A
proportional representation of the Comoros's exports
The level of poverty in
the Comoros is high, but "judging by the international poverty threshold of
$1.9 per person per day, only two out of every ten Comorians could be
classified as poor, a rate that places the Comoros ahead of other low-income
countries and 30 percentage points
ahead of other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa."[64] Poverty
declined by about 10% between 2014 and 2018, and living conditions generally
improved.[64] Economic inequality remains
widespread, with a major gap between rural and urban areas.[64] Remittances through
the sizable Comorian diaspora form a substantial part of the country's GDP[65] and
have contributed to decreases in poverty and increases in living standards.[64]
According to ILO's
ILOSTAT statistical database, between 1991 and 2019 the unemployment rate as
a percent of the total labor force ranged from 4.38% to 4.3%.[66] An
October 2005 paper by the Comoros Ministry of Planning and Regional
Development, however, reported that "registered unemployment rate is 14.3
percent, distributed very unevenly among and within the islands, but with
marked incidence in urban areas."[67]
In 2019, more than
56% of the labor force was employed in agriculture, with 29% employed in
industry and 14% employed in services.[68] The
islands' agricultural sector is based on the export of spices,
including vanilla, cinnamon,
and cloves,
and thus susceptible to price fluctuations in the volatile world commodity market for
these goods.[65] The
Comoros is the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang,
a plant whose extracted essential oil is
used in the perfume industry;
some 80% of the world's supply comes from the Comoros.[69]
High population
densities, as much as 1000 per square kilometre in the densest agricultural
zones, for what is still a mostly rural, agricultural economy may lead to an
environmental crisis in the near future, especially considering the high rate
of population growth. In 2004 the Comoros' real GDP growth was a low 1.9% and
real GDP per capita continued to decline. These declines are explained by
factors including declining investment, drops in consumption, rising inflation,
and an increase in trade imbalance due in part to lowered cash crop prices,
especially vanilla.[67]
Fiscal policy is
constrained by erratic fiscal revenues, a bloated civil service wage bill, and
an external debt that is far above the HIPC threshold.
Membership in the franc zone, the main anchor of stability, has nevertheless
helped contain pressures on domestic prices.[70]
The Comoros has an
inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population,
and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labour force
contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment,
and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture
contributes 40% to GDP and
provides most of the exports.
The government is
struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatise commercial
and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports,
to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate.[71]
The Comoros is a
member of the Organization for the
Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[72]
Demographics[edit]
Main
article: Demographics
of the Comoros
A
mosque in Moroni
|
Year |
Million |
|
1950 |
0.16 |
|
2000 |
0.54 |
|
2018 |
0.8 |
With fewer than a
million people, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the
world, but is also one of the most densely populated, with an average of 275
inhabitants per square kilometre (710/sq mi). In 2001, 34% of the
population was considered urban, but that is expected to grow, since rural
population growth is negative, while overall population growth is still
relatively high.[73]
Almost half the
population of the Comoros is under the age of 15.[74] Major
urban centres include Moroni, Mitsamihuli, Fumbuni, Mutsamudu, Domoni,
and Fomboni.
There are between 200,000 and 350,000 Comorians in France.[75]
Ethnic groups[edit]
The islands of the
Comoros share mostly African-Arab origins. Minorities include Malagasy (Christian)
and Indian (mostly Ismaili).
There are recent immigrants of Chinese origin
in Grande Comore (especially Moroni). Although most French left after
independence in 1975, a small Creole community,
descended from settlers from France, Madagascar and Réunion, lives in the
Comoros.[citation
needed]
Languages[edit]
Further
information: Languages
of the Comoros
The most
common languages
in the Comoros are the Comorian languages,
collectively known Shikomori. They are related to Swahili,
and the four different variants (Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shindzuani and
Shimaore) are spoken on each of the four islands. Arabic and Latin scripts
are both used, Arabic being the more widely used, and an official orthography has
recently been developed for the Latin script.[76]
Arabic and French are
also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a
second language, being the language of Quranic teaching. French is the
administrative language and the language of most non-Quranic formal education.
Religion[edit]
Further
information: Religion
in the Comoros
A
view of Domoni, Anjouan including
mosque
Sunni Islam is the dominant
religion, followed by as much as 99% of
the population.[77] Comoros
is the only Muslim-majority country in Southern Africa and the second
southernmost Muslim-majority territory after the French territory of Mayotte.
A
minority of the population of the
Comoros are Christian, both Catholic and Protestant denominations are
represented, and most Malagasy residents are also Christian. Expatriates from
metropolitan France are mostly Catholic.[78]
Health[edit]
Further
information: Health
in the Comoros
There are 15
physicians per 100,000 people. The fertility rate was
4.7 per adult woman in 2004. Life expectancy at
birth is 67 for females and 62 for males.[79]
Education[edit]
Further
information: Education
in the Comoros
Almost all children
attend Quranic schools,
usually before, although increasingly in tandem with regular schooling.
Children are taught about the Qur'an,
and memorise it, and learn the Arabic script. Most parents prefer their
children to attend Koran schools before moving on to the French-based schooling
system. Although the state sector is plagued by a lack of resources, and the
teachers by unpaid salaries, there are numerous private and community schools
of relatively good standard. The national curriculum, apart from a few years
during the revolutionary period immediately post-independence, has been very
much based on the French system, both because resources are French and most
Comorians hope to go on to further education in France. There have recently
been moves to Comorianise the syllabus and integrate the two systems, the
formal and the Quran schools, into one, thus moving away from the secular
educational system inherited from France.[80]
Pre-colonization
education systems in Comoros focused on necessary skills such as agriculture,
caring for livestock and completing household tasks. Religious education also
taught children the virtues of Islam. The education system underwent a
transformation during colonization in the early 1900s which brought secular
education based on the French system. This was mainly for children of the
elite. After Comoros gained independence in 1975, the education system changed
again. Funding for teachers' salaries was lost, and many went on strike. Thus,
the public education system was not functioning between 1997 and 2001. Since
gaining independence, the education system has also undergone a democratization
and options exist for those other than the elite. Enrollment has also grown.
In 2000, 44.2% of
children ages 5 to 14 years were attending school. There is a general lack of
facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, textbooks and other resources. Salaries for
teachers are often so far in arrears that many refuse to work.[81]
Prior to 2000,
students seeking a university education had to attend school outside of the
country, however in the early 2000s a university was created in the country.
This served to help economic growth and to fight the "flight" of many
educated people who were not returning to the islands to work.[82]
About fifty-seven
percent of the population is literate in the Latin script while
more than 90% are literate in the Arabic script.[83] Comorian
has no native script, but both Arabic and Latin scripts are used.
Culture[edit]
See
also: Public
holidays in the Comoros
Traditionally,
women on Ndzuani wear red and white patterned garments called shiromani,
while on Ngazidja and Mwali colourful shawls called leso are
worn. Many women apply a paste of ground sandalwood and coral called msinzano to
their faces.[84] Traditional
male clothing is a long white shirt known as a nkandu, and a bonnet
called a kofia.[85]
Marriage[edit]
There are two types
of marriages in Comoros, the little marriage (known as Mna daho on
Ngazidja) and the customary marriage (known as ada on
Ngazidja, harusi on the other islands). The little marriage is
a simple legal marriage. It is small, intimate, and inexpensive and the bride's
dowry is nominal. A man may undertake a number of Mna daho marriages
in his lifetime, often at the same time, a woman fewer; but both men and women
will usually only undertake one ada, or grand marriage, and this
must generally be within the village. The hallmarks of the grand marriage are
dazzling gold jewelry, two weeks of celebration and an enormous bridal dowry.
Although the expenses are shared between both families as well as with a wider
social circle, an ada wedding on Ngazidja can cost up to €50,000 (74,000 US
dollars). Many couples take a lifetime to save for their ada, and it is not
uncommon for a marriage to be attended by a couple's adult children.[86]
The ada marriage
marks a man's transition in the Ngazidja age system from youth to elder. His
status in the social hierarchy greatly increases, and he will henceforth be
entitled to speak in public and participate in the political process, both in
his village and more widely across the island. He will be entitled to display
his status by wearing a mharuma, a type of shawl, across his
shoulders, and he can enter the mosque by the door reserved for elders, and sit
at the front. A woman's status also changes, although less formally, as she
becomes a "mother" and moves into her own house. The system is less
formalised on the other islands, but the marriage is nevertheless a significant
and costly event across the archipelago.
The ada is
often criticized because of its great expense, but at the same time it is a
source of social cohesion and the main reason why migrants in France and elsewhere
continue to send money home. Increasingly, marriages are also being taxed for
the purposes of village development, so the effects are not entirely negative.[87]
Kinship and social structure[edit]
Villagers
in Bangwa Kuuni, Ngazidja
Comorian society
has a bilateral descent system.
Lineage membership and inheritance of immovable goods (land, housing) is
matrilineal, passed in the maternal line, similar to many Bantu peoples who
are also matrilineal, while other goods and patronymics are passed in the male
line. However, there are differences between the islands, the matrilineal
element being stronger on Ngazidja.[88]
Music[edit]
Further
information: Music
of the Comoro Islands
Twarab music,
imported from Zanzibar in
the early 20th century, remains the most influential genre on the islands and
is popular at ada marriages.[89]
Media[edit]
Further
information: Media
of the Comoros
There are two daily
national newspapers published
in the Comoros, the government-owned Al-Watwan,[90] and
the privately owned La Gazette des Comores, both published in Moroni.
There are a number of smaller newsletters published on an irregular basis as
well as a variety of news websites. The government-owned ORTC provides national
radio and television service and there are a number of privately owned stations
broadcasting locally in the larger towns.[citation
needed]
See
also[edit]
·
Index
of Comoros-related articles
References[edit]
This article
incorporates text from the Library of Congress Country
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Yorumlar