Algeria
Algeria
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to
search
For
the unincorporated community in West Virginia, see Algeria,
West Virginia.
Algeria (/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ (
listen) al-JEER-ee-ə, Arabic: الجزائر al-Jazā'ir),
officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a
country in the Maghreb region
of North Africa.
The capital and most populous city is Algiers,
located in the far north of the country on the Mediterranean coast.
With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres (919,595 sq mi), Algeria
is the tenth-largest country in the world,
and the largest by area in the African Union and
the Arab world.[10] With
an estimated population of over 44 million, it is the eighth-most
populous country in Africa.
Algeria is bordered
to the
northeast by Tunisia,
to the east by Libya,
to the southeast by Niger,
to the
southwest by Mali, Mauritania,
and the Western Saharan territory,
to the
west by Morocco,
and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The country has a semi-arid
geography, with most of the population living in the fertile north and
the Sahara dominating
the geography of the south. This arid geography makes the country very
vulnerable to climate change.[11]
Pre-1962 Algeria
has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient Numidians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Rustamid, Idrisid, Aghlabid, Fatimids, Zirid, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads, Zayyanids, Spaniards, Ottomans and
finally, the French
colonial empire. Most of the
population is Arab-Berber,
practicing Islam and
using the official languages of Arabic and Berber.
However, French serves
as an administrative and education language in some contexts, and Algerian Arabic is
the main spoken language.
Algeria has a semi-presidential
republic, with local constituencies
consisting of 58 provinces and 1,541 communes. Algeria is a regional and middle power.
It has the highest human
development index of all
non-island African countries and one of the largest economies on the continent,
based largely on energy exports. Algeria has the 16th largest oil
reserves in the world and the second largest in Africa, while it has the ninth largest reserves of natural gas. Sonatrach,
the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa, supplying large
amounts of natural gas to
Europe. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest
defence budget. It is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC,
the United Nations,
and the Arab Maghreb Union,
of which it is a founding member.
Contents
·
1Name
·
2History
o
2.1Prehistory and ancient history
o
2.4French colonization (1830–1962)
o
2.5The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)
o
2.6Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath
·
6Economy
o
6.1Oil and Natural Resources
o
6.2Research and alternative energy sources
·
8Culture
o
8.1Media
o
8.2Art
o
8.4Music
·
9Health
·
12Notes
Name[edit]
Other forms of the
name are: Arabic: الجزائر, romanized: al-Jazāʾir, Algerian
Arabic: الدزاير, romanized: al-dzāyīr; French: Algérie.
It is officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (Arabic: الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية
الشعبية, romanized: al-Jumhūriyya
al-Jazāʾiriyya ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyya aš-Šaʿbiyya, French: République
algérienne démocratique et populaire, abbreviated as RADP).
The country's name
derives from the city of Algiers which
in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāʾir (الجزائر, "The
Islands"),[12] a
truncated form of the older Jazāʾir Banī Mazghanna (جزائر بني مزغنة, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"),[13][14][page needed][15][page needed] employed
by medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi.
History[edit]
|
Part
of a series on the |
|
Modern times[show] |
|
Related topics[show] |
|
·
v ·
t ·
e |
Main
article: History
of Algeria
Prehistory and ancient history[edit]
Main
articles: Prehistoric
North Africa and North
Africa during Antiquity
Roman
ruins at Djémila
In the region of
Ain Hanech (Saïda Province),
early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in North Africa were
found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles
(43,000 BC) similar to those in the Levant.[16][17] Algeria
was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques.[18] Tools
of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian (after
the archaeological site of Bir el Ater,
south of Tebessa).
The earliest blade
industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian (located
mainly in the Oran region).
This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of
the Maghreb between
15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and
agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as
early as 11,000 BC[19] or
as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings,
predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of
North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came
to be called Berbers,
who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.[20]
Ancient Roman ruins
of Timgadon the
street leading to the local Arch
of Trajan
From their
principal center of power at Carthage,
the Carthaginians expanded
and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC,
a Phoenician presence
existed at Tipasa,
east of Cherchell, Hippo Regius (modern Annaba)
and Rusicade (modern Skikda).
These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.
As Carthaginian
power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically.
Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing,
trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between
Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also
resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the
extraction of tribute from others.
Masinissa (c. 238–148 BC),
first king of Numidia
Jugurtha (c. 160–104 BC),
king of Numidia
By the early 4th
century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army.
In the Revolt of the Mercenaries,
Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the
defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War.[21] They
succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory,
and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe
natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive
defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.[22]
In 146 BC the city
of Carthage was
destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland
grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber
kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in Numidia,
behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania,
which extended across the Moulouya River in
modern-day Morocco to
the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the
coming of the Almohads and Almoravids more
than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa in
the 2nd century BC.
Numidia along
with Egypt, Rome,
and Carthage 200
BC
After Masinissa's
death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times.
Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was
annexed to the Roman Empire.
For several
centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the
region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of
the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. Saint Augustine was
the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day
Annaba, Algeria), located in the Roman province of Africa.
The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved
into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.[23] They
did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by
local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Leptis Magna was
abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who
had been busy facilitating an Amazigh political,
military and cultural revival.[23][24]
Middle Ages[edit]
Main
article: Medieval
Muslim Algeria
Mansourah
mosque, Tlemcen
After negligible
resistance from the locals, Muslim Arabs of
the Umayyad Caliphate conquered
Algeria in the early 8th century.
Dihya memorial
in Khenchela,
Algeria
Large numbers of
the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin
speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th
century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th.[25] After
the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including
the Rustamids, Aghlabids, Fatimids, Zirids, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads and
the Abdalwadid.
The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th
century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the
few remaining died out in the 14th century.[25]
During the Middle Ages, North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including Judah Ibn Quraysh, the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan) and Sidi El Houari, and the Emirs Abd Al Mu'min and Yāghmūrasen. It was during this time that the Fatimids or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of Arabs and Levantines extending from Algeria to their capital state of Cairo. The Fatimid caliphate began to collapse when its governors the Zirids seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic Tāghribāt. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero Khālīfā Al-Zānatī asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The Zirids, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous Amazigh tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as Fatimid Caliphate made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz and Yemen.[26][27][28] Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.
Fatimid
Caliphate, a Shia Ismaili dynasty
that ruled much of North Africa, c. 960–1100
The Amazighs historically
consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès
tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of
the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houara, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama,
Awarba, and Berghwata).
All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.[29]
Several Amazigh dynasties
emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides
a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid, Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties.[30]
Main article:
Banu Hilal
The
Berber Almohad Caliphate at
its greatest extent, c. 1212
There reigned
in Ifriqiya,
current Tunisia, a Berber family, Zirid,
somehow recognising the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliph
of Cairo.
Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this
suzerainty. The Fatimid state
was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also
found another means of revenge.
Between the Nile and
the Red Sea were
living Bedouin tribes
expelled from Arabia for
their disruption and turbulent influence, both Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym among
others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the Nile Valley since
the nomads would often loot. The then Fatimid vizier
devised to relinquish control of the Maghreb and
obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to
leave, but the Fatimid treasury
even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance.
Whole tribes set
off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some
stopped on the way, especially in Cyrenaica,
where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most
arrived in Ifriqiya by
the Gabes region.
The Zirid ruler
tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the
walls of Kairouan,
his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the field.
The flood was still
rising, and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of Constantine where
they gradually choked Qalaa of Banu
Hammad, as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From
there they gradually gained the upper Algiers and Oran plains.
Some were forcibly taken by the Almohads in
the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century the
Arabs were in all of North Africa,
with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions
which remained entirely Berber.[citation
needed] The
influx of Bedouin tribes
was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural Arabization of
the Maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in
areas where agriculture had
previously been dominant.[31] Ibn Khaldun noted
that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal tribes
had become completely arid desert.[32]
In the early 16th
century, Spain constructed
fortified outposts (presidios)
on or near the Algerian coast. Spain took
control of few coastal towns like Mers el Kebir in
1505; Oran in
1509; and Tlemcen, Mostaganem and Ténès in
1510. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky
islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in
North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military
endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.[33]
Ottoman era[edit]
Main article:
Ottoman Algeria
The Zayyanid kingdom of
Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors
The region of
Algeria was partially ruled by Ottomans for
three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the Turkish privateer
brothers Aruj and Hayreddin
Barbarossa, who operated successfully under
the Hafsids,
moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel
and Algiers from the Spaniards but
eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing
the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the Bani Ziyad dynasty,
to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen,
Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan
gave him the title of beylerbey and
a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries.
With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between
Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until
1792).[34][35]
The next beylerbey
was Hayreddin's son Hasan,
who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers
who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a
regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for
three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as
the ojaq and led by an agha.
Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid
regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the
agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in
1659.[34]
Plague had
repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to
50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in
1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.[36]
In 1671, the taifa rebelled,
killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received
the title of Dey.
After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the divan,
a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ojaq;
but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey
persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing
the pasha in
that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire.[34]
The dey was in
effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in
the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine
deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob
rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly.
Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the
unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently
provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's
authority was seldom applied in the Kabylie.[34]
Christian
slaves in Algiers, 1706
The Barbary pirates preyed
on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.[36] The
pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used
them as slaves.[37] They
also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to
Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25
million Europeans as slaves.[38] They
often made raids, called Razzias,
on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave
markets in North Africa and other
parts of the Ottoman Empire.[39][40] In
1544, for example, Hayreddin
Barbarossa captured the island
of Ischia,
taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari,
almost the entire population.[41] In
1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, Turgut Reis,
enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island
of Gozo.
Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands.
The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera.[42] The
introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed
them to branch out into the Atlantic.[43]
Bombardment
of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet,
to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816
In July 1627 two
pirate ships from Algiers under the command of Dutch pirate Jan Janszoon sailed
as far as Iceland,[44] raiding and
capturing slaves.[45][46][47] Two
weeks earlier another pirate ship from Salé in Morocco had
also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later
ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate
ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands.[48]
Barbary raids in
the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a
result, the Spanish Navy bombarded
Algiers in 1783 and 1784.[35] For
the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such
traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples, Portugal and
the Knights of Malta.
Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications
were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk.[49]
In the 19th
century, the pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a
"licence tax" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels.[50]
Piracy on American
vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the First (1801–1805)
and Second Barbary Wars (1815).
Following those wars, Algeria was weaker and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch
fleet commanded by the British Lord
Exmouth, attacked
Algiers. After a nine-hour bombardment,
they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by
Captain (later Commodore) Stephen Decatur (U.S.
Navy) concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end
the practice of enslaving Christians.[51]
Despite being removed
from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in Morocco.
Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco
through the 20th century.[35]
French colonization (1830–1962)[edit]
Main
articles: French Algeria and Algerian War
See
also: French
North Africa
Battle
of Somah in 1836
Under the pretext
of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and captured
Algiers in 1830.[52][53] Historian Ben Kiernan wrote
on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was
complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since
1830."[54] French
losses from 1831–51 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in
action.[55][56] The
population of Algeria, which stood at about 2.9 million in 1872, reached nearly
11 million in 1960.[57] French
policy was predicated on "civilizing" the country.[58] The
slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest.[37] The conquest
of Algeria by the French took some
time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and
disease epidemics caused the indigenous Algerian
population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.[59][60] During
this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was
formed, made up of Berbers, mostly Kabyles.
As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles.[61] About
80% of Indigenous schools were constructed for Kabyles.
Emir
Abdelkader, Algerian leader insurgent
against French colonial rule, 1865
From 1848 until
independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as
an integral part and département of the nation. One of
France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for
hundreds of thousands of European immigrants,
who became known as colons and later, as Pied-Noirs. Between
1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.[62][page needed][63] These
settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land
from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that
increased the amount of arable land.[64] Many
Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers,
and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both
cities.[65]
The
six historical Leaders of the FLN: Rabah Bitat, Mostefa Ben Boulaïd, Didouche Mourad, Mohammed Boudiaf, Krim Belkacem and Larbi Ben M'Hidi.
During the late
19th and early 20th century; the European share was almost a fifth of the
population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part
of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after
1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this
tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central
Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively
human-capital intensive agriculture.[66]
Gradually,
dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and
economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater
political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the
uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now
known as the Sétif
and Guelma massacre. Tensions between
the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events
of what was later called the Algerian War began.
Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and
their dependants were killed by the Front
de Libération Nationale (FLN) or
by lynch mobs
in Algeria.[67] The
FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the
French conducted severe reprisals.
The war led to the
death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of
injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron,
state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than
the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the
1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence.
Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around
700,000.[68] The
war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians.[69]
The war against
French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence
following the March 1962 Evian agreements and
the July 1962 self-determination referendum.
Some estimates put the Algerian death toll during the French colonial rule at
over 10 million.[70]
The first three decades of independence (1962–1991)[edit]
Main
article: History
of Algeria (1962–99)
The number of
European Pied-Noirs who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000
between 1962 and 1964.[71] The
exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran
massacre of 1962, in which hundreds
of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians.
Algeria's first
president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN)
leader Ahmed Ben Bella.
Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led
to the Sand War in
1963. Ben Bella was overthrown
in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène,
his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had
become increasingly socialist and authoritarian;
Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his
support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture
and launched a massive industrialisation drive. Oil
extraction facilities were
nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the
international 1973 oil crisis.
In the 1960s and
1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of
industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's
successor, Chadli Bendjedid,
introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in
Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other
Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the
seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.[72]
The Algerian
economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the
price collapsed during the 1980s oil glut.[73] Economic
recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social
unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a
multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic
Salvation Front (FIS), a
broad coalition of Muslim groups.[72]
Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath[edit]
Main
article: Algerian
Civil War
Massacres of
over 50 people in 1997–1998. The Armed Islamic Group
(GIA) claimed responsibility for many of them.
In December 1991
the Islamic
Salvation Front dominated the
first of two rounds of legislative
elections. Fearing the election of an
Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling
the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a High
Council of State was installed
to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil insurgency between
the Front's armed wing, the Armed
Islamic Group, and the national
armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The
Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of civilian massacres.[74] At
several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of
international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air
France Flight 8969, a hijacking
perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a
ceasefire in October 1997.[72]
Algeria held elections
in 1999, considered biased by
international observers and most opposition groups[75] which
were won by President Abdelaziz
Bouteflika. He worked to restore political
stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative,
approved in a referendum,
under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand
members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited
amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of
insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC),
a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign
against the Government.[72]
Bouteflika was
re-elected in the April
2004 presidential election after
campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised
economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country,
raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a
second amnesty initiative, the Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation,
which was approved in a referendum in September 2005.
It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.[72]
In November 2008,
the Algerian
Constitution was amended following a
vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents.
This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the 2009
presidential elections, and he was
re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his
re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national
reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million
new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue
public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.[72]
A continuing series
of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by
similar protests across the Middle East
and North Africa. On 24 February
2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old state of emergency.[76] The
government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral
code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.[77] In
April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.[72] However,
elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and
international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of
political opponents continue.
On 2 April 2019,
Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after mass
protests against his candidacy for a
fifth term in office.[78]
Geography[edit]
Main
article: Geography
of Algeria
The Sahara,
the Hoggar and
the Atlas mountains compose
the Algerian relief.
Since the 2011
breakup of Sudan,
Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin.
Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara.
To the north, the Tell Atlas form
with the Saharan Atlas,
further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and
between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge
in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy
the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The
highest point is Mount Tahat (3,003
metres or 9,852 feet).
Algeria lies mostly
between latitudes 19° and 37°N (a
small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes 9°W and 12°E.
Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a
few natural harbours.
The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas
is a steppe landscape
ending with the Saharan Atlas;
farther south, there is the Sahara desert.[79]
The Hoggar Mountains (Arabic: جبال هقار), also
known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria.
They are located about 1,500 km (932 mi) south of the capital,
Algiers, and just east of Tamanghasset.
Algiers, Oran, Constantine,
and Annaba are
Algeria's main cities.[79]
Climate and hydrology[edit]
Main
article:
Climate
of Algeria
Algeria
map of Köppen climate classification.
Tikjda ski
resort in northern Algeria
In this region,
midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the
clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly.
Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
Rainfall is fairly
plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to
670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annually, the amount of precipitation
increasing from west to east. Precipitation is
heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as
1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.
Farther inland, the
rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has ergs,
or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds
are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to 43.3 °C (110 °F).
Climate change[edit]
This
section is an excerpt from Climate
change in Algeria[edit]
Climate
change has wide reaching effects on the country of
Algeria. Algeria was not a significant contributor to climate change,[80] but
like other countries in the Mena region,
is expected to be on the front-lines of climate change impacts.[81]
Because a large
part of the country is in
already hot and arid geographies,
including part of the Sahara,
already strong heat and water resource access challenges are expected to get
worse.[80] As
early as 2014, scientist were attributing extreme heat waves to climate change
in Algeria.[80]
Algeria was ranked 46th of countries in the 2020 Climate
Change Performance Index.[82]
Fauna and flora[edit]
Main
article: Wildlife
of Algeria
Algeria
varies from coastal areas to mountainous areas and deserts
The varied
vegetation of Algeria includes coastal, mountainous and
grassy desert-like
regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures
comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The
most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals,
and gazelles,
although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes),
and jerboas.
Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population,
but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the Barbary stag,
inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas.
A variety of bird
species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are
inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are
the sole native monkey. Snakes, monitor lizards,
and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout
the semi arid regions
of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles.[83]
In the north, some
of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and
other conifers.
The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper,
and evergreen oak)
and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave,
and various palm trees grow
in the warmer areas. The grape vine is
indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm
trees. Acacias with
wild olives are
the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara.
Camels are
used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous
snakes, scorpions,
and numerous insects.
Politics[edit]
Main
article: Politics
of Algeria
Abdelmadjid
Tebboune, President of Algeria since 2019
Elected politicians
have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected
civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders"), known as
"le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even
deciding who should be president. The most powerful man might have been Mohamed Mediène,
the head of military intelligence, before he's brought down during the 2019
protests.[84] In
recent years, many of these generals have died, retired, or imprisoned. After
the death of General Larbi Belkheir,
Previous president Bouteflika put
loyalists in key posts, notably at Sonatrach,
and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely,
until he was brought down in 2019 during protests.[85]
The head of state
is the President of
Algeria, who is elected for a five-year
term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a
constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed
this limitation.[86] The next
presidential election was planned
to be in April 2019, but widespread
protests erupted on 22 February
against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted
in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April.[87] Algeria
has universal suffrage at
18 years of age.[3] The
President is the head of the army,
the Council
of Ministers and the High Security Council.
He appoints the Prime
Minister who is also the head of
government.[88]
The People's
National Assembly
The Algerian
parliament is bicameral;
the lower house, the People's
National Assembly, has 462 members
who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council
of the Nation, has 144 members
serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and
48 are appointed by the president.[89] According
to the constitution,
no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in
religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political
campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.[90]
Parliamentary
elections were last held in May
2012, and were judged to be largely free by international
monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities.[89] In
the elections, the FLN won
221 seats, the military-backed National
Rally for Democracy won 70, and
the Islamist Green
Algeria Alliance won 47.[89]
Foreign relations[edit]
Main
article: Foreign
relations of Algeria
President Abdelaziz Bouteflika and George W. Bush exchange
handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta
District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are Dmitriy Medvedev,
left, and Yasuo Fukuda,
right.
Algeria is included
in the European Union's European
Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which
aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and
rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more
flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European
Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of
€15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.
In 2009, the French
government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defense
Minister Herve Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace
with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations,"
when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists
believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage
broader reparation.[91]
Tensions between
Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have
been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union,
nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.[92]
Military[edit]
Main
article: Military
of Algeria
The military of
Algeria consists of the People's
National Army (ANP),
the Algerian
National Navy (MRA), and
the Algerian Air Force (QJJ),
plus the Territorial
Air Defence Forces.[3] It
is the direct successor of the National
Liberation Army (Armée de
Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National
Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during
the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).
Total military
personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary
staff (2008 estimate).[93] Service
in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.[94] The
military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross
domestic product (GDP) in
2012.[3] Algeria
has the second largest military in
North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion).[95] Most
of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia,
with whom they are a close ally.[95][96]
In 2007, the
Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT
and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also
building two 636-type diesel submarines for
Algeria.[97]
Human rights[edit]
Main
article: Human
rights in Algeria
Algeria has been
categorized by Freedom House as
"not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the
exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labeled "partly
free."[98] In
December 2016, the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor issued
a report regarding violation of media freedom in
Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on freedom of the
press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration,
protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and
websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the
ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are cancelled.[99]
Independent and
autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many
leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of
which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered
by the government.[100][101][102]
Homosexuality is
illegal in Algeria.[103] Public
homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.[104]
Human Rights Watch has
accused the Algerian authorities of using the COVID-19 pandemic as
an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country,
leading to the arrest of youths as part of social distancing.[105]
Administrative
divisions[edit]
Main
articles: Provinces
of Algeria, Districts
of Algeria, and Municipalities
of Algeria
Algeria is divided
into 58 provinces (wilayas),
553 districts (daïras)
and 1,541 municipalities (baladiyahs).
Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat,
which is usually the largest city.
The administrative
divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new
provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical
order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are[3]
|
# |
Area (km2) |
Population |
map |
# |
Area (km2) |
Population |
||
|
1 |
402,197 |
439,700 |
30 |
211,980 |
552,539 |
|||
|
2 |
4,975 |
1,013,718 |
31 |
2,114 |
1,584,607 |
|||
|
3 |
25,057 |
477,328 |
32 |
78,870 |
262,187 |
|||
|
4 |
6,768 |
644,364 |
33 |
285,000 |
54,490 |
|||
|
5 |
12,192 |
1,128,030 |
34 |
4,115 |
634,396 |
|||
|
6 |
3,268 |
915,835 |
35 |
1,591 |
795,019 |
|||
|
7 |
20,986 |
730,262 |
36 |
3,339 |
411,783 |
|||
|
8 |
161,400 |
274,866 |
37 |
58,193 |
159,000 |
|||
|
9 |
1,696 |
1,009,892 |
38 |
3,152 |
296,366 |
|||
|
10 |
4,439 |
694,750 |
39 |
54,573 |
673,934 |
|||
|
11 |
556,200 |
198,691 |
40 |
9,811 |
384,268 |
|||
|
12 |
14,227 |
657,227 |
41 |
4,541 |
440,299 |
|||
|
13 |
9,061 |
945,525 |
42 |
2,166 |
617,661 |
|||
|
14 |
20,673 |
842,060 |
43 |
9,375 |
768,419 |
|||
|
15 |
3,568 |
1,119,646 |
44 |
4,897 |
771,890 |
|||
|
16 |
273 |
2,947,461 |
45 |
29,950 |
209,470 |
|||
|
17 |
66,415 |
1,223,223 |
46 |
2,376 |
384,565 |
|||
|
18 |
2,577 |
634,412 |
47 |
86,105 |
375,988 |
|||
|
19 |
6,504 |
1,496,150 |
48 |
4,870 |
733,060 |
|||
|
20 |
6,764 |
328,685 |
49 |
8,835 |
162,267 |
|||
|
21 |
4,026 |
904,195 |
50 |
62,215 |
57,276 |
|||
|
22 |
9,150 |
603,369 |
51 |
11,410 |
174,219 |
|||
|
23 |
1,439 |
640,050 |
52 |
120,026 |
16,437 |
|||
|
24 |
4,101 |
482,261 |
53 |
101,350 |
50,163 |
|||
|
25 |
2,187 |
943,112 |
54 |
65,203 |
122,019 |
|||
|
26 |
8,866 |
830,943 |
55 |
17,428 |
247,221 |
|||
|
27 |
2,269 |
746,947 |
56 |
86,185 |
17,618 |
|||
|
28 |
18,718 |
991,846 |
57 |
131,220 |
50,392 |
|||
|
29 |
5,941 |
780,959 |
58 |
88,126 |
11,202 |
Economy[edit]
Main article:
Economy of Algeria
Graphical
depiction of the country's exports in 28 colour-coded categories.
Algeria is
classified as an upper middle income country by the World Bank.[106] Algeria's
currency is the dinar (DZD).
The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist
post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government
has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions
on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.[3] These
restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions
about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.
Algeria has
struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high
costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the
economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector
have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing
shortages.[3] The
country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including
the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial
reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions.[77]
A wave of economic
protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer
more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit
increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5
years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of
which will go to human development.[77]
The
port city of Oran
The Algerian
economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by public spending, in particular in the
construction and public-works sector, and by growing internal demand. If
hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4.8%. Growth of 3% is
expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of inflation was 4% and the
budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP
and at the end of December 2011, official reserves were put at US$182 billion.[77] Inflation,
the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and
2007.[107]
In 2011 Algeria
announced a budgetary surplus of $26.9 billion, 62% increase in comparison to
2010 surplus. In general, the country exported $73 billion worth of commodities
while it imported $46 billion.[108]
Thanks to strong
hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in foreign
currency reserves and a large
hydrocarbon stabilization fund. In addition, Algeria's external
debt is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.[3] The
economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign
exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports),
current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk
of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.[109]
In 2011, the
agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5.3%, respectively.[77] About
14% of the labor force are employed in the agricultural
sector.[3] Fiscal
policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace
of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing.[77]
Algeria has not
joined the WTO,
despite several years of negotiations.[110]
In March 2006,
Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era
debt[111] during
a visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin to
the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, Algerian President Abdelaziz
Bouteflika agreed to buy
$7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defence systems and other arms
from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport.[112][113]
Dubai-based
conglomerate Emarat Dzayer Group said it had signed a joint venture agreement
to develop a $1.6 billion steel factory in Algeria.[114]
Oil and Natural Resources[edit]
See
also: Mining
industry of Algeria
Pipelines
across Algeria
Algeria, whose
economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member
since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day,
but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to
Europe.[115] Hydrocarbons
have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of
budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has
the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in
the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter.
The U.S. Energy
Information Administration reported that
in 2005, Algeria had 4.5 trillion cubic metres (160×1012 cu ft)
of proven natural-gas
reserves.[116] It
also ranks 16th in oil reserves.[3]
Non-hydrocarbon
growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the
authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment
creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have
improved the current account and the already large international reserves
position.[109]
Income from oil and
gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in
production volume is downwards.[77] Production
from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping
from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011.
Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in
2011, against 48% in 1962,[117] and
70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion.[77]
The Algerian
national oil company is Sonatrach,
which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in
Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which
usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.[118]
Access to biocapacity in
Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares[119] of
biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average
of 1.6 global hectares per person.[120] In
2016 Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their ecological
footprint of consumption. This means
they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a
result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.[119]
Research and alternative energy sources[edit]
Algeria has
invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities
and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance
alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power.[121] Algeria
is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean,
so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi
R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various
universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to
1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and
satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.
Labour market[edit]
Despite a decline
in total unemployment,
youth and women unemployment is high.[109] Unemployment
particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24
age group.[77]
The overall rate of
unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a
rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011
the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the
programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion
Professionnelle).[77]
Tourism[edit]
Main
article: Tourism
in Algeria
The development of
the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of
facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been
implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.
There are
several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in
Algeria[122] including Al
Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital
of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa,
a Phoenician and later Roman town; and Djémila and Timgad,
both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley,
a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis;
and the Casbah of
Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Site is
the Tassili n'Ajjer,
a mountain range.
Transport[edit]
Main
article: Transport
in Algeria
The
main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border was a part of
the Cairo–Dakar Highway project
The Algerian road
network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000 km
(110,000 mi) of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving
rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West
Highway, a major infrastructure project
currently under construction. It is a 3-way, 1,216-kilometre-long (756 mi)
highway, linking Annaba in
the extreme east to the Tlemcen in
the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway,
which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian
government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad,
and Tunisia.
Demographics[edit]
Main
article: Demographics
of Algeria
|
Historical populations (in thousands) |
||
|
Year |
Pop. |
±% p.a. |
|
1856 |
2,496 |
— |
|
1872 |
2,416 |
−0.20% |
|
1886 |
3,752 |
+3.19% |
|
1906 |
4,721 |
+1.16% |
|
1926 |
5,444 |
+0.72% |
|
1931 |
5,902 |
+1.63% |
|
1936 |
6,510 |
+1.98% |
|
1948 |
7,787 |
+1.50% |
|
1954 |
8,615 |
+1.70% |
|
1966 |
12,022 |
+2.82% |
|
1977 |
16,948 |
+3.17% |
|
1987 |
23,051 |
+3.12% |
|
1998 |
29,113 |
+2.15% |
|
2008 |
34,080 |
+1.59% |
|
2013 |
37,900 |
+2.15% |
In January 2016
Algeria's population was an estimated 40.4 million, who are mainly Arab-Berber ethnically.[3][125][126] At
the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million.[127] About
90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the
Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases,
although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or
partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.[3]
Women make up 70%
of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of
medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than
men. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.[128]
Between 90,000 and
165,000 Sahrawis from
Western Sahara live in the Sahrawi
refugee camps,[129][130] in
the western Algerian Sahara desert.[131] There
are also more than 4,000 Palestinian
refugees, who are well integrated and
have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR).[129][130] In
2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant
workers lived in Algeria.[132]
The largest
concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has
reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.[133]
Ethnic groups[edit]
Main
article: Ethnic
groups in Algeria
Indigenous Berbers as
well as Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Arabs, Turks,
various Sub-Saharan
Africans, and French have
contributed to the history of Algeria.[134] Descendants
of Andalusian refugees
are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.[135] Moreover, Spanish was
spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants
deep into the 18th century, and even Catalan was
spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants
in the small town of Grish El-Oued.[136]
Some
of Algeria's traditional clothes
Despite the
dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of
Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab
nationalism rising in the 20th century.[137][138] Berbers
and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying
languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the Kabylie region
east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern
desert and the Shenwa people of
North Algeria.[139][page needed]
During the colonial
period, there was a large (10% in 1960)[140] European population
who became known as Pied-Noirs.
They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin.
Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or
immediately after its end.[141]
Languages[edit]
Main
article: Languages
of Algeria
Signs
in the University
of Tizi Ouzou in three
languages: Arabic, Berber,
and French
Modern
Standard Arabic and Berber are
the official languages.[142] Algerian Arabic (Darja)
is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian
Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber.
Berber has
been recognised as a "national language" by the constitutional
amendment of 8 May 2002.[143] Kabyle,
the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a
few restrictions) in parts of Kabylie.
In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that would make
Berber an official language alongside Arabic.
Although French has
no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the
world in terms of speakers,[144] and
French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television),
and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due
to Algeria's
colonial history. It can be
regarded as a lingua franca of
Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.[145] An
Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak
and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After
an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out
French, in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the
study of French, and some television programs are broadcast in the language.
Algeria emerged as
a bilingual state after 1962.[146] Colloquial Algerian Arabic is
spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.[147]
Religion[edit]
Main
article: Religion
in Algeria
See
also: Early
African Church
See
also: History
of the Jews in Algeria
|
Religion in Algeria, 2010 (Pew Research)[148] |
||
|
Religion |
Percent |
|
|
|
97.9% |
|
|
Unaffiliated |
|
1.8% |
|
|
0.2% |
|
|
|
0.1% |
|
Islam is
the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis,
accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook
estimate,[3] and
97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010.[148] There
are about 150,000 Ibadis in
the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia.
Estimates of the Christian
population range from 60,000[149] to
200,000.[150] Algerian
citizens who are Christians predominantly belong to Protestant groups,
which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years
including many forced closures.[151][150]
Algeria has given
the Muslim world
a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ben
Badis, Mouloud
Kacem Naît Belkacem, Malek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun.
Cities[edit]
Main
article: List
of cities in Algeria
Below is a list of
the most important Algerian cities:
Culture[edit]
Main
article: Culture
of Algeria
Algerian
musicians in Tlemcen, Ottoman Algeria.
Painting by Bachir Yellès
Modern Algerian
literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French,
has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous
novelists of the 20th century
include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is
widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni,
later vice-president of Amnesty
International, and Tahar Djaout,
murdered by an Islamist group
in 1993 for his secularist views.[153]
Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are
noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was
born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras);
and Ibn Khaldun,
though born in Tunis,
wrote the Muqaddima while
staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family
in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and
Sheikh Ben Badis in
colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was
born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch),
in what later became Algeria.
Contemporary Algerian cinema is
various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There
has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to
films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.[154]
Media[edit]
Main
article: Media of Algeria
Art[edit]
Mohammed
Racim was a painter and founder of the Algerian school of miniature painting
Algerian painters,
like Mohamed Racim or
Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French
colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation
of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have
also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the
habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic
currents including the one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles,
appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical
painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to
the new realities of the country through its struggle and its
aspirations. Mohammed Khadda[155] and M'hamed Issiakhem have
been notable in recent years.[155]
Literature[edit]
Main
articles: Algerian
literature and List
of Algerian writers
Ahlam Mosteghanemi,
the most widely read woman writer in the Arab world.[156]
The historic roots
of Algerian literature go back to the Numidian and Roman
African era, when Apuleius wrote The Golden Ass,
the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also
known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcellus and Martianus Capella,
among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who
revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like Ahmad al-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khaldoun,
who wrote the Muqaddimah while
staying in Algeria, and many others.
Albert Camus was
an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in literature.
Today Algeria
contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the
Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and
French.
As a first step,
Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of
the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the Algerian
trilogy of Mohammed Dib,
or even Nedjma of Kateb Yacine novel
which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers
will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include Mouloud Feraoun, Malek Bennabi, Malek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria,
Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, Mouloud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon,
and Assia Djebar.
In the aftermath of
the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene,
they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems,
among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.
Currently, a part
of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression,
due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined
in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of
the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the
writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of Yasmina Khadra, the
oath of barbarians of Boualem Sansal, memory
of the flesh of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and
the last novel by Assia Djebar nowhere in my father's House.
Music[edit]
Main
article: Music of Algeria
Chaâbi music is
a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of
Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music
is El
Hadj M'Hamed El Anka. The
Constantinois Malouf style
is saved by musician from whom Mohamed
Tahar Fergani is a
performer.
Folk music styles
include Bedouin music,
characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music,
based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through
generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the Aurès Mountains.
Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Souad Massi is
a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora
include Manel
Filali in Germany and Kenza Farah in
France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg languages generally, Tinariwen had
a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in Sétif and
remains a unique style of its kind.
Modern music is
available in several facets, Raï music
is a style typical of western Algeria. Rap,
a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.
Cinema[edit]
Main
article: Cinema of Algeria
Italian-Algerian
film The
Battle of Algiers (1966) won the Golden Lion at
the 27th
Venice International Film Festival.[157]
The Algerian
state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget
of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.8) allocated to production, specific measures and an
ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to
promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak
links in distribution and exploitation.
The financial
support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the
Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for
Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national
production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films,
documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total
of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.
According to the
European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were
distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were
Algerian-French co-productions. Days
of Glory (2006) and Outside
the Law (2010) recorded
the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722,
respectively.[158]
Algeria won
the Palme d'Or for Chronicle
of the Years of Fire (1975), two
Oscars for Z (1969),
and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie The
Battle of Algiers.
Sports[edit]
Main
article: Sport in Algeria
Various games have
existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures,
people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba (chess variant).
Playing cards, checkers and
chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia)
and rifle shooting are
part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.[159]
The first Algerian
and African gold medalist is Boughera El Ouafi in 1928 Olympics of
Amsterdam in the Marathon.
The second Algerian Medalist was Alain Mimoun in 1956 Summer
Olympics in Melbourne. Several men
and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including Noureddine Morceli, Hassiba Boulmerka, Nouria Merah-Benida,
and Taoufik Makhloufi,
all specialized in middle-distance
running.[160]
Football is
the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of
the sport, including Lakhdar Belloumi, Rachid Mekhloufi, Hassen Lalmas, Rabah Madjer, Salah Assad and Djamel Zidane.
The Algeria
national football team qualified for
the 1982 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup, 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup.
In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international
trophies as the club ES Sétif or JS Kabylia.
The Algerian
Football Federation is an
association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and
international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.[161]
Cuisine[edit]
Main
article: Algerian cuisine
A Couscous-based
salad
Algerian cuisine is
rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of
Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the
region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main
products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There
is not a dish where cereals are not present.
Algerian cuisine
varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be
prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, couscous,[162] chorba,
rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, shakshouka,
mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou,
etc. Merguez sausage
is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the
added spices.
Cakes are marketed
and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America.
However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and
customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik,
Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak,
Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry
also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products
include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and
so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as
street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha,
hassouna, and t'chicha.
Health[edit]
Main
article: Health in Algeria
In 2002, Algeria had
inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per
1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved
water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80%
of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban
areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to
"improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making
progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without
sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by
2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health
care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government
maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water
still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery.
The poor generally receive health care free of charge.[163]
Health records have
been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the
south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.[164]
Education[edit]
Main
articles: Education
in Algeria and List
of universities in Algeria
Algerian
school children
Since the 1970s, in
a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of
illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school
attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who
have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since
independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%.[165]
UIS literacy
rate Algeria population plus 15 1985–2015
Since 1972, Arabic
is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of
schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of
instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian,
Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore
the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the
age of five.[166] Apart
from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge.
After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an
educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical.
At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the
baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in
universities and institutes.[167]
Education is
officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the
illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for
women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at
11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at
35.5%.[165]
Algeria has 26
universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a
million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University
of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest,
it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and
letters). 25 of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher
education were founded after the independence of the country.
Even if some of
them offer instruction in Arabic like
areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine
continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important
universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari
Boumediene, the University
of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia.
The University
of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen
and University of Batna Hadj
Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.[168]
See
also[edit]
·
Index
of Algeria-related articles
Notes[edit]
1.
^ The CIA
World Factbook states that
about 15% of Algerians, a minority, identify as Berber even though many
Algerians have Berber origins. The Factbook explains that of the approximately
15% who identify as Berber, most live in the Kabylie region,
more closely identify with Berber heritage instead of Arab heritage, and are
Muslim.
References[edit]
1.
^ "Constitution of Algeria,
Art. 11". El-mouradia.dz.
language: France and Arabic (government language); people of Algeria speak
Arabic and Berber. Archived from the original on
18 July 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
2.
^ "Constitution of Algeria;
Art. 11". Apn-dz.org. 28
November 1996. Archived from the original on
25 July 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
3.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "The World Factbook –
Algeria". Central
Intelligence Agency. 4 December 2013.
Archived from the original on
12 June 2007. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
4.
^ "Central Intelligence
Agency". The World
Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 8 February 2020. Retrieved 23
February2020.
5.
^ "Démographie" [Demography] (PDF). Office
National des Statistiques (in French). 18 May 2020. Archived (PDF) from
the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
6.
^ Jump up to:a b c d "World Economic Outlook
Database". IMF.org. International
Monetary Fund. Retrieved 24
February 2019.
7.
^ "Distribution of Family
Income – Gini Index". The
World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency. Archived from
the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
8.
^ "GINI index (World Bank
estimate)". data.worldbank.org. World Bank. Archived from
the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
9.
^ "Human Development Report
2019" (PDF). United
Nations Development Programme.
10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
10. ^ "Country Comparison:
Area". CIA World
Factbook. Archived from
the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
11. ^ "Algeria | Facts, History, &
Geography". Encyclopedia
Britannica. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
12. ^ LLC,
Forbidden Fruits (30 January 2013). iAfrica – Ancient History UNTOLD.
Forbidden Fruit Books LLC.
13. ^ Bazina,
Abdullah Salem (2010). The spread of Islam in
Sub-Saharan in Africa (in Arabic).
Al Manhal. ISBN 978-9796500024. Archived from
the original on 16 December 2018. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
14. ^ al-Idrisi,
Muhammad (12th century) Nuzhat al-Mushtaq
15. ^ Abderahman,
Abderrahman (1377). History of Ibn Khaldun – Volume 6.
16. ^ Sahnouni,
Mohamed; de Heinzelin, Jean. "The Site of Ain Hanech
Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern
Algeria" (PDF).
Journal of Archaeological Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on
10 May 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
17. ^ "Research at Ain Hanech, Algeria".
Stoneageinstitute.org. Archived from
the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
18. ^ Eric
Delson; Ian Tattersall; John Van Couvering; Alison S. Brooks (2004). Encyclopedia of Human Evolution
and Prehistory: Second Edition.
Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-135-58228-9.
19. ^ Henn,
Brenna M.; Botigué, Laura R.; Gravel, Simon; Wang, Wei; Brisbin, Abra; Byrnes,
Jake K.; Fadhlaoui-Zid, Karima; Zalloua, Pierre A.; Moreno-Estrada, Andres;
Bertranpetit, Jaume; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Comas, David (12 January
2012). "Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports
Back-to-Africa Migrations". PLOS
Genetics. 8 (1): e1002397. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002397. PMC 3257290. PMID 22253600.
20. ^ Brett,
Michael; Fentress, Elizabeth (1997). "Berbers in Antiquity". The
Berbers. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20767-2.
21. ^ Christelle
Fischer-Bovet (2014). Army and Society in Ptolemaic
Egypt. Cambridge University Press.
p. 91. ISBN 978-1-107-00775-8.
22. ^ Jackson
J. Spielvogel (2014). Western Civilization: Volume A:
To 1500. Cengage Learning.
p. 156. ISBN 978-1-285-98299-1.
23. ^ Jump up to:a b Cameron,
Averil; Ward-Perkins, Bryan (2001). "Vandal Africa,
429–533". The
Cambridge Ancient History. 14. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 124–126. ISBN 978-0-521-32591-2.
24. ^ Mattingly,
D.J. (1983). "The Laguatan: A Libyan Tribal Confederation in the late
Roman Empire". Libyan Studies. 14: 96–108. doi:10.1017/S0263718900007810.
25. ^ Jump up to:a b Jonathan
Conant, Staying Roman, 2012, pp. 364–365 ISBN 978-0-521-19697-0
26. ^ "Fatimid Dynasty (Islamic
dynasty)". Encyclopædia
Britannica. Archived from
the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
27. ^ "Qantara".
Qantara-med.org. Archived from the original on
9 October 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
28. ^ "Qantara – Les Almoravides
(1056–1147)". Qantara-med.org.
Archived from the original on
21 September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
29. ^ Khaldūn,
Ibn (1852). Histoire des Berbères et des
dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William
MacGuckin Slane [History of
the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa] (in French).
p. XV.
30. ^ Khaldūn,
Ibn (1852). Histoire des Berbères et des
dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William
MacGuckin Slane [History of
the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa] (in French).
pp. X.
31. ^ "The Great Mosque of
Tlemcen". MuslimHeritage.com.
Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization.
32. ^ Populations Crises and Population
Cycles Archived 27
May 2013 at the Wayback Machine,
Claire Russell and W. M. S. Russell
33. ^ "European Offensive".
Country Studies. Archived from
the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
34. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d "Algeria – Ottoman Rule".
Country Studies. Archived from
the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
35. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mikaberidze,
Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical
Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 847.
36. ^ Jump up
to:a b Robert
Davis (2003). Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in
the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800.
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-71966-4.
37. ^ Jump up to:a b Hannay,
David McDowall (1911). "Barbary Pirates" .
In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th
ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 383–384.
38. ^ Robert
Davis (17 February 2011). "British Slaves on the
Barbary Coast". Bbc.co.uk. Archived from
the original on 25 April 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
39. ^ "British Slaves on the
Barbary Coast". Archived from
the original on 8 February 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
40. ^ Hitchens,
Christopher (Spring
2007). "Jefferson Versus the Muslim
Pirates". City
Journal. Archived from
the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
41. ^ Povoledo,
Elisabetta (26 September 2003). "The Mysteries and Majesties
of the Aeolian Islands". International
Herald Tribune. Archived from
the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
42. ^ "When Europeans were slaves:
Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously
believed". Ohio State
Research COmmunications. Archived from the original on
25 July 2011.
43. ^ Paul
Auchterlonie (24 March 2012). Encountering Islam: Joseph Pitts:
An English Slave in 17th-century Algiers and Mecca.
Arabian Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-9571060-8-6.
44. ^ "Vísindavefurinn: Hverjir stóðu raunverulega
að Tyrkjaráninu?" Archived 6
February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Vísindavefurinn.
45. ^ "Vísindavefurinn: Hvað gerðist í
Tyrkjaráninu?" Archived 6
February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Vísindavefurinn.
46. ^ "Turkish invasion walk" Archived 6
February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. heimaslod.is.
47. ^ Etravel
Travel service. "Turkish Invasion – Visit Westman Islands
.com" Archived 6
February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. visitwestmanislands.com.
48. ^ "Vísindavefurinn: Voru Tyrkjarán framin í
öðrum löndum?"Archived 6
February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Vísindavefurinn.
49. ^ Jamieson,
Alan G. (2013). Lords of the Sea: A History of the Barbary Corsairs.
Reaktion Books. p. 176.
50. ^ Mackie,
Erin Skye (1 January 2005). "Welcome the Outlaw: Pirates, Maroons, and
Caribbean Countercultures". Cultural Critique. 59 (1):
24–62. doi:10.1353/cul.2005.0008.
51. ^ Littell,
Eliakim (1836). The Museum of foreign literature,
science and art. E. Littell.
p. 231. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
52. ^ "Background Note: Algeria". U.S.
Department of State. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
53. ^ Horne,
Alistair (2006). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. 1755 Broadway,
New York, NY 10019: NYRB Classics. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6.
54. ^ Kiernan,
Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and
Extermination from Sparta to Darfur.
Yale University Press. p. 374. ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3.
Retrieved 21 May 2017.
55. ^ Bennoune,
Mahfoud (2002). The Making of Contemporary
Algeria, 1830–1987. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-52432-2.
56. ^ "Had
planning been better (barracks, hospitals, medical services), the drain on men
would have been miniscule: it has been calculated that between 1831 and 1851,
92,329 died in hospital, and only 3,336 in battle." The Military and
Colonial Destruction of the Roman Landscape of North Africa ... – Michael
Greenhalgh, p366 [1] Archived 20
March 2019 at the Wayback Machine
57. ^ Lahmeyer,
Jan (11 October 2003). "Algeria (Djazaïria)
historical demographic data of the whole country". Population
Statistics. populstat.info. Archived from the original on
18 July 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2012.[unreliable
source?]
58. ^ Ruedy,
John Douglas (2005). Modern Algeria: The Origins And
Development of a Nation. Indiana University
Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-253-21782-0. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
59. ^ Sowerwine,
Charles (2018). France since 1870.
p. 37. ISBN 9781137406118.
60. ^ Ricoux,
René (1880). La démographie figurée de
l'Algérie: étude statistique des... [The
figurative demographics of Algeria]. G. Masson. pp. 260–261. Archived from
the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2013.[unreliable
source?]
61. ^ Hargreaves,
Alec G.; McKinney, Mark (1997). Post-Colonial Cultures in France.
Psychology Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-415-14487-2. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
62. ^ Randell,
Keith (1986). France: Monarchy, Republic and Empire, 1814–70.
Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-51805-2. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015.
63. ^ Fisher,
Michael H. (2014). Migration: A World History. New York: Oxford University
Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0199764341.
64. ^ Horne,
Alistair (2006). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (New York Review
Books Classics). 1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019: NYRB Classics.
p. 32. ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6.
65. ^ Albert
Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "A history of the Arab peoples".
Harvard University Press. p.323. ISBN 0-674-01017-5
66. ^ Baten,
Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.
Cambridge University Press. p. 220. ISBN 9781107507180.
67. ^ "French 'Reparation' for Algerians". BBC
News. 6 December 2007. Archived from
the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
68. ^ Horne,
Alistair (1978). A Savage War of Peace.
p. 538. ISBN 978-0-670-61964-1.
69. ^ Windrow,
Martin (15 November 1997). The Algerian War 1954–62. p. 13. ISBN 1-85532-658-2.
70. ^ "France's colonial-era
crimes 'unforgotten' in Algeria". aa.com.tr.
71. ^ Ussama
Samir Makdisi; Paul A. Silverstein (2006). Memory and Violence in the Middle
East and North Africa. Indiana
University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-253-34655-1. Archivedfrom
the original on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
72. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d e f g "Country Profile:
Algeria". Foreign and
Commonwealth Office. Archived from the original on
13 December 2010.
73. ^ Prochaska,
David. "That Was Then, This Is Now:
The Battle of Algiers and After".
p. 141. Archived from
the original on 25 July 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
74. ^ "98 Die in One of Algerian Civil
War's Worst MassacresArchived 23
June 2017 at the Wayback Machine". The
New York Times. 30 August 1997.
75. ^ Freedom
House. "Freedom in the World 2013:
Algeria". Freedom
House. Archived from
the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
76. ^ "Algeria Officially Lifts
State of Emergency".
CNN. 24 February 2011. Archived from the original on
1 March 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
77. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d e f g h i j "Algeria".
African Economic Outlook. Archived from the original on
26 March 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
78. ^ "Algeria parliament to meet
on Tuesday to name interim president".
Al Jazeera English. 6 April 2019. Archived from
the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
79. ^ Jump up
to:a b Metz,
Helen Chapin. "Algeria : a country
study". United States
Library of Congress. Archived from the original on
15 January 2013. Retrieved 18 May 2013.
80. ^ Jump up to:a b c Benzerga,
Mohamed (24 August 2015). "Heatwaves are on the rise
in Algeria due to climate change, says specialist". the
Guardian. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
81. ^ Sahnoune,
F.; Belhamel, M.; Zelmat, M.; Kerbachi, R. (1 January 2013). "Climate Change in Algeria:
Vulnerability and Strategy of Mitigation and Adaptation". Energy
Procedia. TerraGreen 13 International Conference 2013 - Advancements in
Renewable Energy and Clean Environment. 36: 1286–1294. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2013.07.145. ISSN 1876-6102.
82. ^ "Algeria". Climate
Change Performance Index. 28 November 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
83. ^ "Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert:
An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation
Planning in Mauritania Archived 10
August 2018 at the Wayback Machine". PLOS ONE.
25 February 2011.
84. ^ "Still waiting for real democracy". The
Economist. 12 May 2012. Archived from
the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
85. ^ "The president and the police". The
Economist. 4 May 2010. Archived from
the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
86. ^ "Algeria Deputies Scrap Term Limit". BBC
News. 12 November 2008. Archived from
the original on 14 November 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2008.
87. ^ Algeria's president Abdelaziz
Bouteflika resigns after 20 years
88. ^ Articles:
85, 87, 77, 78 and 79 of the Algerian constitution Algerian
government. "Constitution".
Archived from the original on
22 April 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
89. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Algeria". Freedom
in the World 2013. Freedom House. Archived from
the original on 23 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
90. ^ Article
42 of the Algerian constitution – Algerian Government. "Algerian constitution
الحـقــوق والحــرّيـات".
Archived from the original on
14 September 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
91. ^ "France offers compensation
to victims sickened by nuclear tests". Archived from
the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
92. ^ "Bin Ali calls for reactivating
Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics".
ArabicNews.com. 19 February 1999. Archived from the original on
25 November 2001. Retrieved 4 April 2006.
93. ^ Hackett,
James (ed.) (5 February 2008). The Military Balance 2008. International Institute for Strategic Studies.
Europa. ISBN 978-1-85743-461-3. Archived from
the original on 25 July 2013. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
94. ^ "Loi
14-06 relative au service national", JORADP 48, August, 10th 2014
95. ^ Jump up to:a b "Algeria buying military
equipment". UPI.com. Archived from
the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
96. ^ "The Nuclear Vault: The
Algerian Nuclear Problem".
Gwu.edu. Archived from
the original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
97. ^ "Venezuela's Chavez To Finalise Russian
Submarines Deal". Agence
France-Presse. 14 June 2007. Archived from
the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2011.
98. ^ "Freedom in the World". Freedom
House. Archived from
the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
99. ^ Monitor,
Euro-Med (December 2016). "Algeria must stop crushing
dissent by imprisoning journalists and activists". Euro-Mediterranean. Archived from
the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
100.
^ Izouaouen,
Noreddine (4 December 2017). "Algérie : Dissolution
du Snateg, le secrétaire général conteste". Maghreb
Emergent (in French). Archived from the original on
15 March 2018.
101.
^ "Le Snategs dénonce et décide
de porter plainte | Le Matin d'Algérie". Le
Matin d'Algérie (in French). Archived from
the original on 15 March 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
102.
^ "Algérie : Les droits
des travailleurs bafoués". Human
Rights Watch (in French). 27 May 2014. Archived from
the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
103.
^ "Here are the 10 countries
where homosexuality may be punished by death". The
Washington Post. 16 June 2016. Archived from
the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
104.
^ "2010 Human Rights Report:
Algeria". US
Department of State. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
105.
^ "During Pandemic, Algeria
Tightens Vise on Protest Movement". Human
Rights Watch. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
106.
^ "World Bank list of
economies". World Bank.
January 2011. Archived from the original on
22 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May2011.
107.
^ "Algeria: Financial Sector
Profile". Making Finance
Work for Africa. Archived from the original on
25 July 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
108.
^ "Algeria Non-Oil Exports
Surge 41%". nuqudy.com. 25
January 2012. Archived from the original on
14 June 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
109.
^ Jump up to:a b c "Algeria: 2011 Article IV
Consultation" (PDF).
IMF. Archived (PDF) from
the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
110.
^ "Doing Business in
Algeria". Embassy of the
United States Algiers, Algeria. Archived from the original on
28 December 2012.
111.
^ "Brtsis, Brief on Russian
Defence, Trade, Security and Energy".
Brtsis.com. Archived from the original on
19 February 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2008.
112.
^ "Russia Agrees Algeria Arms Deal, Writes Off
Debt". Reuters. 11 March
2006. Archived from
the original on 25 July 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
113.
^ Marsaud,
Olivia (10 March 2006). "La Russie efface la dette
algérienne" (in
French). Radio
France Internationale. Archived from
the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 31 August 2011.
114.
^ Arnold,
Tom (24 November 2016). "Dubai-based firm forms $1.6
billion steel plant joint venture in Algeria". Reuters. Archived from
the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 June2018.
115.
^ "OPEC Bulletin 8-9/12".
p. 15. Archived from
the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
116.
^ "Country Comparison: Natural
Gas – Proved Reserves".
Cia.gov. Archived from
the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
117.
^ Benchicou,
Mohamed (27 May 2013). "Le temps des
crapules – Tout sur l'Algérie".
Tsa-algerie.com. Archived from the original on
11 March 2014.
118.
^ "Country Analysis
Briefs – Algeria" (PDF).
Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original (PDF)on
31 May 2013.
119.
^ Jump up to:a b "Country Trends".
Global Footprint Network. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
120.
^ Lin,
David; Hanscom, Laurel; Murthy, Adeline; Galli, Alessandro; Evans, Mikel;
Neill, Evan; Mancini, MariaSerena; Martindill, Jon; Medouar, FatimeZahra;
Huang, Shiyu; Wackernagel, Mathis (2018). "Ecological
Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National
Footprint Accounts, 2012-2018". Resources. 7 (3):
58. doi:10.3390/resources7030058.
121.
^ "Archived copy".
Archived from the original on
1 November 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
122.
^ UNESCO. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Archivedfrom
the original on 19 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
123.
^ Kamel
Kateb (2001). Européens, "indigènes"
et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962).
INED. p. 30. ISBN 978-2-7332-0145-9. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
124.
^ "Armature Urbaine" (PDF). V°
Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat – 2008. Office National
des Statistiques. September 2011. p. 82. Archived from the original (PDF) on
27 September 2013.
125.
^ "Algérie
a atteint 40,4 millions d'habitants (ONS)".
ons. 17 April 2013. Archived from
the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2013.
126.
^ Arredi,
Barbara; Poloni, Estella S.; Paracchini, Silvia;
Zerjal, Tatiana; Dahmani, M. Fathallah; Makrelouf, Mohamed; Vincenzo, L.
Pascali; Novelletto, Andrea; Tyler-Smith, Chris (7 June 2004). "A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for
Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa". Am.
J. Hum. Genet. 75 (2): 338–45. doi:10.1086/423147. PMC 1216069. PMID 15202071.
127.
^ "Algeria – Population".
Library of Congress Country Studies. Archived from
the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
128.
^ Slackman,
Michael (26 May 2007). "A Quiet Revolution in
Algeria: Gains by Women". The
New York Times. Archivedfrom
the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
129.
^ Jump up to:a b "2013 UNHCR country operations profile –
Algeria". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
2013. Archived from
the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
130.
^ Jump up to:a b "World Refugee Survey 2009:
Algeria". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants.
2009. Archived from the originalon
12 August 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
131.
^ "Western Sahara: Lack of
Donor Funds Threatens Humanitarian Projects". IRIN.
5 September 2007. Archivedfrom
the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December2013.
132.
^ "Chinese Migrants in Algiers Clash". BBC
News. 4 August 2009. Archived from
the original on 6 December 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
133.
^ "Fiches thématiques –
Population immigrée – Immigrés 2012".
Insee. Archived from
the original on 20 February 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
134.
^ UNESCO
(2009). "Diversité et
interculturalité en Algérie"(PDF).
UNESCO. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on
25 July 2013.
135.
^ Ruedy,
John Douglas (2005). Modern Algeria – The Origins
and Development of a Nation.
Indiana University Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780253217820. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
136.
^ De
Epalza, Mikel (2011). El español hablado en Túnez por
los moriscos (siglos XVII-XVIII).
Universitat de València. pp. 32–38–39–444. ISBN 978-84-370-8415-2. Archived from
the original on 20 October 2017.
137.
^ Stokes,
Jamie (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of
Africa and the Middle East: L to Z.
Infobase Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015.
138.
^ The Report: Algeria 2011.
Oxford Business Group. 2011. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-907065-37-8.
139.
^ Marion
Mill Preminger (1961). The sands of Tamanrasset: the story of Charles de
Foucauld. Hawthorn
Books. Archivedfrom
the original on 6 September 2015.
140.
^ Cook,
Bernard A. (2001). Europe since 1945: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland.
p. 398. ISBN 978-0-8153-4057-7.
141.
^ De
Azevedo; Raimond Cagiano (1994). Migration and Development
Co-Operation. Council of
Europe. p. 25. ISBN 9789287126115. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
142.
^ "Présentation de
l'Algérie". French Ministry
of Foreign and European Affairs. 23 October 2012. Archived from
the original on 20 March 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
143.
^ "L'Algérie crée une académie
de la langue amazigh".
Magharebia.com. 2 June 2006. Archived from the original on
16 February 2011.
144.
^ "La mondialisation, une
chance pour la francophonie".
Senat.fr. Archived from the original on
1 December 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2013. ()
"L'Algérie, non-membre de l'Organisation internationale de la
Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec
environ 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12
millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique
avec plus de 4 millions de francophones."
145.
^ "Le dénombrement des
francophones" (PDF).
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Archived from the original(PDF) on
12 October 2013. () p. 9 "Nous y
agrégeons néanmoins quelques données disponibles pour des pays n'appartenant
pas à l'OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour l'Algérie (11,2 millions en 20081),"
and "1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et plus déclarant savoir
lire et écrire le français, d'après les données du recensement de 2008
communiquées par l'Office national des statistiques d'Algérie."
146.
^ Dargin,
Justin (19 November 2008). "Algeria's Liberation,
Terrorism, and Arabization".
blogs.nytimes.com. Archived from the original on
10 May 2013.
147.
^ Leclerc,
Jacques (5 April 2009). "Algérie: Situation
géographique et démolinguistique". L'aménagement
linguistique dans le monde (in French). Université Laval.
Archived from the original on
24 January 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
148.
^ Jump up
to:a b "Religion in Algeria". Global
Religious Futures. Pew
Research Center's Religion &
Public Life Project. 2010. Archived from
the original on 16 December 2013.
149.
^ "Religious Composition by
Country, 2010-2050".
Pew Research Center. 2 April 2015.
150.
^ Jump up
to:a b "Algeria".
151.
^ https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Algeria.pdf
152.
^ http://citypopulation.de/Algeria-Cities.html
153.
^ "Tahar Djaout".
French Publishers' Agency. Archived from
the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
154.
^ "Short guide to contemporary
Algerian cinema". Mapping
Contemporary Cinema. Archived from the
original on 11 March
2014. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
155.
^ Jump up
to:a b "Mohammed Khadda".
Khadda.com. Archived from the original on
2 April 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
156.
^ Honorary
and Goodwill Ambassadors (20 January 2017). "Algerian novelist Ahlem
Mosteghanemi designated UNESCO artist for peace". United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Archived from
the original on 7 May 2017.
157.
^ "The 1960s".
Retrieved 7 October 2013.[permanent
dead link]
158.
^ Ali,
Sahar (25 March 2014) ALGÉRIE Archived 3
February 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
European Audiovisual Observatory
159.
^ "Sports and recreation". Archived from
the original on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
160.
^ "Algeria". Archived from
the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
161.
^ "Algeria national football team". Sky
Sports. Archivedfrom
the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 9 December2012.
162.
^ "Luce
Ben Aben, Moorish Women Preparing Couscous, Algiers, Algeria". World
Digital Library. 1899. Archived from
the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 26 September2013.
163.
^ "Library of Congress Country Studies –
Algeria" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from
the original on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
164.
^ Kemp,
Thomas Jay (2009). International Vital Records
Handbook. Genealogical
Publishing Com. p. 347. ISBN 978-0-8063-1793-9. Archived from
the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
165.
^ Jump up to:a b "Taux d'Analphabétisme et taux
d'Alphabétisation de la population âgée de 10 ans et plus selon le sexe et la
wilaya de résidence" (PDF).
Office National des Statistiques. Archived (PDF) from
the original on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
166.
^ "Ecoles privées, Tamazight,
enseignement du Français, syndicats ... – Les vérités de Benbouzid".
Presse-dz.com. Archived from the original on
15 November 2012. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
167.
^ "Le taux d'analphabétisme en Algérie est de
21,3%".
Algerie-dz.com. Archived from
the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
168.
^ "Algeria | Ranking Web of
Universities". Webometrics.info.
Archived from the original on
8 February 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
Bibliography[edit]
·
Ageron,
Charles-Robert (1991). Modern Algeria – A History from 1830 to the
Present. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: Hurst. ISBN 978-0-86543-266-6.
·
Aghrout, Ahmed;
Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). Algeria in Transition – Reforms and
Development Prospects. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34848-5.
·
Bennoune, Mahfoud
(1988). The Making of Contemporary Algeria – Colonial Upheavals
and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30150-3.
·
Fanon, Frantz (1966;
2005 paperback). The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press.
ASIN B0007FW4AW, ISBN 978-0-8021-4132-3.
·
Horne, Alistair (1977). A
Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-61964-1, ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6(2006
reprint)
·
Laouisset, Djamel
(2009). A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry.
New York City: Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61761-190-2.
·
Roberts, Hugh
(2003). The Battlefield – Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken
Polity. London: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-684-1.
·
Ruedy, John
(1992). Modern Algeria – The Origins and Development of a Nation.
Bloomington: Indiana
University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34998-9.
·
Stora, Benjamin
(2001). Algeria, 1830–2000 – A Short History. Ithaca, New
York: Cornell
University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3715-1.
·
Sidaoui, Riadh
(2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military – Algeria
1962–2008". Religion and Politics – Islam and Muslim
Civilisation. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-7418-5.
Yorumlar