Rwanda
Rwanda
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"Ruanda"
redirects here. For other uses, see Ruanda
(disambiguation).
Rwanda[a] is
a landlocked country in
the Great Rift Valley where
the African Great Lakes region
and East Africa converge.
One of the smallest countries on the African mainland, its capital city
is Kigali.
Located a few degrees south of the Equator,
Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi,
and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. It is highly
elevated, giving it the soubriquet "land of thousand hills", with its
geography dominated by mountains in the west and savanna to
the east, with numerous lakes throughout the country. The climate is temperate
to subtropical, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons each year. Rwanda
has a population of over 12.6 million[7] living
on 26,338 km2 (10,169 mi2) of land, and is the most
densely populated mainland African country.
The population
is young and
predominantly rural, with a density among the highest in Africa. Rwandans are
drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda,
although within this group there are three subgroups: the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa.
The Twa are a forest-dwelling pygmy people and
are often considered descendants of Rwanda's earliest inhabitants. Scholars
disagree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and Tutsi; some
believe differences are derived from former social castes within
a single people, while others believe the Hutu and Tutsi arrived in the country
separately, and from different locations. Christianity is the largest religion
in the country; the principal language is Kinyarwanda,
spoken by most Rwandans, with English and French serving as additional official
languages. The sovereign state of
Rwanda has a presidential system of
government. The president is Paul Kagame of
the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), who
has served continuously since 2000. Today, Rwanda has low levels of corruption
compared with neighbouring countries, although human rights organisations
report suppression of opposition groups, intimidation and restrictions on
freedom of speech. The country has been governed by a strict administrative
hierarchy since precolonial times; there are five provinces delineated
by borders drawn in 2006. Rwanda is one of only three countries in the world
with a female majority in the national parliament, the two other countries
being Bolivia and Cuba.
Hunter-gatherers settled
the territory in the Stone and Iron Ages,
followed later by Bantu peoples.
The population coalesced first into clans and
then into kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated
from the mid-eighteenth century, with the Tutsi kings conquering others
militarily, centralising power and later enacting anti-Hutu policies. Germany colonised
Rwanda in 1884 as part of German East Africa,
followed by Belgium,
which invaded in 1916 during World War I.
Both European nations ruled through the kings and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi
policy. The Hutu population revolted in
1959. They massacred numerous Tutsi and ultimately established an independent,
Hutu-dominated republic in 1962. A 1973
military coup saw a change
of leadership, but the pro-Hutu policy remained. The Tutsi-led Rwandan
Patriotic Front launched
a civil war in
1990. The presidents of Rwanda and Burundi, both Hutus, were killed when their
aircraft was shot down on 6 April 1994. Social tensions erupted in the 1994 genocide that
followed, in which Hutu extremists killed an estimated 500,000–1,000,000 Tutsi
and moderate Hutu. The RPF ended the genocide with a military victory.
Rwanda's developing
economy suffered heavily in the
wake of the 1994 genocide, but has since strengthened. The economy is based
mostly on subsistence
agriculture. Coffee and tea are the
major cash crops for
export. Tourism is
a fast-growing sector and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner.
Rwanda is one of only two countries in which mountain gorillas can
be visited safely, and visitors pay high prices for gorilla tracking permits.
Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan culture, particularly drums and
the highly choreographed intore dance. Traditional arts and
crafts are produced throughout the country, including imigongo,
a unique cow dung art.
Rwanda has been
governed as a unitary presidential system with
a bicameral
parliament ruled by the Rwandan
Patriotic Front since 1994.
The country is member of the African Union,
the United Nations,
the Commonwealth
of Nations, COMESA, OIF and
the East
African Community.
Contents
·
1History
·
5Economy
·
7Culture
o
7.2Sport
·
9Health
·
11Notes
History[edit]
Main
articles: History of Rwanda, German
East Africa, and Ruanda-Urundi
Modern human
settlement of what is now Rwanda dates from, at the latest, the last glacial period,
either in the Neolithic period
around 8000 BC, or in the long humid period which
followed, up to around 3000 BC.[8] Archaeological
excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter-gatherers in
the late Stone Age,
followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers,
who produced dimpled pottery and
iron tools.[9][10] These
early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa,
aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers
who remain in Rwanda today.[11] Between
700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups
migrated into Rwanda, clearing forest land for agriculture.[11][12] The
forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the mountain
slopes.[13] Historians
have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory
is that the first settlers were Hutu,
while the Tutsi migrated
later to form a distinct racial group, possibly of Nilo-hamitic origin.[14] An
alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming
groups integrating into rather than conquering the existing society.[11][15] Under
this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class
distinction rather than a racial one.[16][17]
A
reconstruction of the ancient King's Palace at Nyanza.
The earliest form
of social organisation in the area was the clan (ubwoko).[18] The
clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most
included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa.[19] From
the 15th century, the clans began to coalesce into kingdoms;[20] by
1700 around eight kingdoms existed in present-day Rwanda.[21] One
of these, the Kingdom of Rwanda,
ruled by the Tutsi Nyiginya clan,
became increasingly dominant from the mid-eighteenth century.[22] The
kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the
reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri.
Rwabugiri conquered several smaller states, expanded the kingdom west and
north,[22][23] and
initiated administrative reforms; these included ubuhake,
in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu
or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service,[24] and uburetwa,
a corvée system
in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs.[23] Rwabugiri's
changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations.[23] The
Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the
royal court,[13] but
their numbers continued to decline.[25]
The Berlin
Conference of 1884 assigned the
territory to Germany as
part of German East Africa,
marking the beginning of the colonial era. The explorer Gustav
Adolf von Götzen was the first
European to significantly explore the country in 1894; he crossed from the
south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king.[26][27] The
Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but
exerted influence by supporting the king and the existing hierarchy and
delegating power to local chiefs.[28][29] Belgian forces
took control of Rwanda and Burundi in
1916, during World War I,
beginning a period of more direct colonial rule.[30] Belgium
ruled both Rwanda and Burundi as a League
of Nations mandate called Ruanda-Urundi.
The Belgians also simplified and centralised the power structure,[31] and
introduced large-scale projects in education, health, public works, and
agricultural supervision, including new crops and improved agricultural
techniques to try to reduce the incidence of famine.[32] Both
the Germans and the Belgians promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and
Tutsi different races.[33] In
1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either
Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for
particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi, the identity cards prevented
any further movement between the classes.[34]
Juvénal Habyarimana,
president from 1973 to 1994
Belgium continued
to rule Ruanda-Urundi (of
which Rwanda formed the northern part) as a UN
Trust Territory after
the Second World War,
with a mandate to oversee eventual independence.[35][36] Tensions
escalated between the Tutsi, who favoured early independence, and the Hutu
emancipation movement, culminating in the 1959 Rwandan Revolution:
Hutu activists began killing Tutsi and destroying their houses,[37] forcing
more than 100,000 people to seek refuge in neighbouring countries.[38][39] In
1961, the suddenly pro-Hutu Belgians held a referendum in
which the country voted to abolish the monarchy. Rwanda was separated from
Burundi and gained independence on 1 July 1962,[40] which
is commemorated as Independence Day, a national holiday.[41] Cycles
of violence followed, with exiled Tutsi attacking from neighbouring countries
and the Hutu retaliating with large-scale slaughter and repression of the
Tutsi.[42] In
1973, Juvénal Habyarimana took
power in a
military coup. Pro-Hutu
discrimination continued, but there was greater economic prosperity and a
reduced amount of violence against Tutsi.[43] The
Twa remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the
forests by the government; many became beggars.[44] Rwanda's
population had increased from 1.6 million people in 1934 to
7.1 million in 1989, leading to competition for land.[45]
Human
skulls at the Nyamata Genocide
Memorial
In 1990, the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), a
rebel group composed of nearly 500,000 Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda
from their base in Uganda, initiating the Rwandan Civil War.[46] The
group condemned the Hutu-dominated government for failing to democratize and
confront the problems facing these refugees. Neither side was able to gain a
decisive advantage in the war,[47] but
by 1992 it had weakened Habyarimana's authority; mass demonstrations forced him
into a coalition with the domestic opposition and eventually to sign the
1993 Arusha
Accords with the RPF.[48] The
cease-fire ended on 6 April 1994 when Habyarimana's plane was shot down near
Kigali Airport, killing him.[49] The
shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the Rwandan genocide,
which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days,
between 500,000 and 1,000,000[50] Tutsi
and politically moderate Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on the orders
of the interim government.[51] Many
Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted.[44]
The Tutsi RPF
restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically,
gaining control of the whole country by mid-July.[52] The
international response to the genocide was limited, with major powers reluctant
to strengthen the already overstretched UN peacekeeping force.[53] When
the RPF took over, approximately two million Hutu fled
to neighbouring countries, in
particular Zaïre,
fearing reprisals;[54] additionally,
the RPF-led army was a key belligerent in the First and Second Congo Wars.[55] Within
Rwanda, a period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
and the reintroduction of Gacaca,
a traditional village court system.[56] Since
2000 Rwanda's economy,[57] tourist
numbers,[58] and Human
Development Index have grown
rapidly;[59] between
2006 and 2011 the poverty rate reduced from 57% to 45%,[60] while life expectancy rose
from 46.6 years in 2000[61] to
59.7 years in 2015.[62]
Politics
and government[edit]
Main
articles: Politics
of Rwanda, Foreign
relations of Rwanda, and Military
of Rwanda
Rwandan
President Paul Kagame
The President of Rwanda is
the head of state,[63] and
has broad powers including creating policy in conjunction with the Cabinet,[64] exercising
the prerogative
of mercy,[65] commanding
the armed
forces,[66] negotiating
and ratifying treaties,[67] signing
presidential orders,[68] and
declaring war or a state of emergency.[66] The
President is elected by popular vote every seven years,[69] and
appoints the Prime
Minister and all other members
of Cabinet.[70] The
incumbent president is Paul Kagame,
who took office upon the resignation of his predecessor, Pasteur Bizimungu,
in 2000. Kagame subsequently won elections in 2003 and 2010,[71][72] although
human rights organisations have criticised these elections as being
"marked by increasing political repression and a crackdown on free
speech".[73] Article
101 of the constitution had
previously limited presidents to two terms in office,[74] but
this was changed in a 2015
referendum, which had been brought
following receipt of a petition signed by 3.8 million Rwandans.[75] Through
this change in the constitution, Kagame could stay on as president until 2034.[76] Kagame
was elected for a third term in 2017 with
98.79% of the vote.[77][78]
The constitution
was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing the transitional
constitution which had been in place since 1994.[79] The
constitution mandates a multi-party system of government, with politics based
on democracy and elections.[80] However,
the constitution places conditions on how political parties may operate.
Article 54 states that "political organizations are prohibited from basing
themselves on race, ethnic group, tribe, clan, region, sex, religion or any
other division which may give rise to discrimination".[81] The
government has also enacted laws criminalising genocide ideology, which can
include intimidation, defamatory speeches, genocide denial and
mocking of victims.[82] According
to Human Rights Watch,
these laws effectively make Rwanda a one-party state, as "under the guise
of preventing another genocide, the government displays a marked intolerance of
the most basic forms of dissent".[83] Amnesty
International is also
critical; in its 2014/15 report, Amnesty said that laws against inciting
insurrection or trouble among the population had been used to imprison people
"for the legitimate exercise of their rights to freedom of association or
of expression".[84]
The Parliament consists
of two chambers. It makes legislation and is empowered by the constitution to
oversee the activities of the President and the Cabinet.[85] The
lower chamber is the Chamber
of Deputies, which has 80 members serving
five-year terms. Twenty-four of these seats are reserved for women, elected
through a joint assembly of local government officials; another three seats are
reserved for youth and disabled members; the remaining 53 are elected by universal suffrage under
a proportional
representation system.[86] Following
the 2018
election, there are 49 female deputies,[87] down
from 51 in 2013;[88] as
of 2020, Rwanda is one of only three countries with a female majority in the
national parliament.[89] The
upper chamber is the 26-seat Senate,
whose members are selected by a variety of bodies. A mandatory minimum of 30%
of the senators are women. Senators serve eight-year terms.[90] (See
also Gender
equality in Rwanda.)
Rwanda's legal
system is largely based on German and Belgian civil
law systems and customary law.[62] The
judiciary is independent of the executive branch,[91] although
the President and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court
judges.[92] Human
Rights Watch have praised the Rwandan government for progress made in the
delivery of justice including the abolition of the death penalty,[93] but
also allege interference in the judicial system by members of the government,
such as the politically motivated appointment of judges, misuse of
prosecutorial power, and pressure on judges to make particular decisions.[94] The
constitution provides for two types of courts: ordinary and specialised.[95] Ordinary
courts are the Supreme
Court, the High Court,
and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts[95] and
a system of commercial courts created in 2011 to expedite commercial
litigations.[96] Between
2004 and 2012, a system of Gacaca courts was
in operation.[97] Gacaca,
a Rwandan traditional court operated by villages and communities, was revived
to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.[98] The
court succeeded in clearing the backlog of genocide cases, but was criticised
by human rights groups as not meeting legal fair standard.[99]
Rwanda has low
corruption levels relative to most other African countries; in 2014, Transparency
International ranked Rwanda
as the fifth cleanest out of 47 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and
55th cleanest out of 175 in the world.[100][101] The
constitution provides for an Ombudsman,
whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption.[102][103] Public
officials (including the President) are required by the constitution to declare
their wealth to the Ombudsman and to the public; those who do not comply are
suspended from office.[104]
The Rwandan Patriotic
Front (RPF) has been the dominant political party in
the country since 1994. The RPF has maintained control of the presidency and
the Parliament in national elections, with the party's vote share consistently
exceeding 70%. The RPF is seen as a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support
from across the country, and is credited with ensuring continued peace,
stability, and economic growth.[105] Human
rights organisation Freedom House claims
that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups; in its 2015
report, Freedom House alleged that the RPF had "prevented new political
parties from registering and arrested the leaders of several existing parties,
effectively preventing them from fielding candidates" in elections.[106] Amnesty
International also claims that the RPF rules Rwanda "without any
meaningful opposition".[107]
Rwanda is a member
of the United Nations,[108] African Union, Francophonie,[109] East
African Community,[110] and
the Commonwealth
of Nations.[111] For
many years during the Habyarimana regime, the country maintained close ties
with France, as well as Belgium, the former colonial power.[112] Under
the RPF government, however, Rwanda has sought closer ties with neighbouring
countries in the East African Community and with the English-speaking world.
Diplomatic relations with France were suspended in 2006 following the indictment
of Rwandan officials by a French judge,[113] and
despite their restoration in 2010, as of 2015 relations between the
countries remain strained.[114] Relations
with the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) were
tense following Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars;[55] the
Congolese army alleged Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blamed the
Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces.[115][116] Relations
soured further in 2012, as Kinshasa accused Rwanda of supporting the M23 rebellion,
an insurgency in the eastern Congo.[117] As
of 2015, peace has been restored and relations are improving.[118] Rwanda's
relationship with Uganda was
also tense for much of the 2000s following a 1999 clash between the two
countries' armies as they backed opposing rebel groups in the Second Congo War,[119] but
improved significantly in the early 2010s.[120][121] In
2019, relations between the two countries deteriorated, with Rwanda closing its
borders with Uganda.[122][123]
The Rwanda Defence
Force (RDF) is the national army of Rwanda. Largely composed of former Rwandan
Patriotic Army (RPA)
soldiers, it includes the Rwanda Land Force, Rwanda Air Force and specialised
units.[124] After
the successful conquest of the country in 1994 in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide,
the Rwandan
Patriotic Front decided to
split the RPF into a political division (which retained the RPF name) and the
RDF, a military division which was to serve as the official army of the Rwandan
state. Defence spending continues to represent an important share of the
national budget, largely due to continuing security problems along the
frontiers with the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and Burundi and
lingering concerns about Uganda's
intentions towards its former ally. In 2010, the United Nations released a
report accusing the Rwandan army of committing wide scale human rights
violations and crimes against humanity in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
during the First and Second Congo Wars,
charges denied by the Rwandan government.[125]
Administrative
divisions[edit]
Main
article: Decentralization
in Rwanda
Provinces
of Rwanda
Rwanda has been
governed by a strict hierarchy since precolonial times.[126] Before
colonisation, the King (Mwami)
exercised control through a system of provinces, districts, hills, and
neighbourhoods.[127] The
current constitution divides Rwanda into provinces (intara), districts (uturere),
cities, municipalities, towns, sectors (imirenge),
cells (utugari), and villages (imidugudu); the larger divisions,
and their borders, are established by Parliament.[128]
The five provinces
act as intermediaries between the national government and their constituent
districts to ensure that national policies are implemented at the district
level. The "Rwanda Decentralisation Strategic Framework" developed by
the Ministry of Local Government assigns to provinces the responsibility for
"coordinating governance issues in the Province, as well as monitoring and
evaluation".[129] Each
province is headed by a governor, appointed by the President and approved by
the Senate.[130] The
districts are responsible for coordinating public service delivery and economic
development. They are divided into sectors, which are responsible for the
delivery of public services as mandated by the districts.[131] Districts
and sectors have directly elected councils, and are run by an executive
committee selected by that council.[132] The
cells and villages are the smallest political units, providing a link between
the people and the sectors.[131] All
adult resident citizens are members of their local cell council, from which an executive
committee is elected.[132] The
city of Kigali is
a provincial-level authority, which coordinates urban planning within the city.[129]
The present borders
were drawn in 2006 with the aim of decentralising power and removing
associations with the old system and the genocide. The previous structure of
twelve provinces associated with the largest cities was replaced with five
provinces based primarily on geography.[133] These
are Northern
Province, Southern
Province, Eastern
Province, Western
Province, and the Municipality of Kigali in
the centre.
Geography[edit]
Main
articles: Geography
of Rwanda and Climate of Rwanda
The Kagera and Ruvubu rivers,
part of the upper Nile
At 26,338 square
kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is the world's 149th-largest
country,[134] and
the fourth smallest on the African mainland after Gambia, Eswatini,
and Djibouti.[134] It
is comparable in size to Burundi, Haiti and Albania.[62][135] The
entire country is at a high altitude: the lowest
point is the Rusizi River at
950 metres (3,117 ft) above sea level.[62] Rwanda
is located in Central/Eastern Africa, and is bordered by the Democratic
Republic of the Congo to the
west, Uganda to
the north, Tanzania to
the east, and Burundi to
the south.[62] It
lies a few degrees south of the equator and
is landlocked.[136] The
capital, Kigali, is located near the centre of Rwanda.[137]
The watershed between
the major Congo and Nile drainage basins runs
from north to south through Rwanda, with around 80% of the country's area
draining into the Nile and 20% into the Congo via the Rusizi River and Lake Tanganyika.[138] The
country's longest river is the Nyabarongo,
which rises in the south-west, flows north, east, and southeast before merging
with the Ruvubu to
form the Kagera;
the Kagera then flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The
Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains into Lake Victoria,
and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the as-yet undetermined
overall source of
the Nile.[139] Rwanda
has many lakes, the largest being Lake Kivu.
This lake occupies the floor of the Albertine Rift along
most of the length of Rwanda's western border, and with a maximum depth of 480
metres (1,575 ft),[140] it
is one of the twenty deepest
lakes in the world.[141] Other
sizeable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru,
and Ihema,
the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains of Akagera
National Park.[142]
Lake
and volcano in the Virunga Mountains
Mountains dominate
central and western Rwanda and the country is sometimes called "Pays des
mille collines" in French ("Land of a thousand hills").[143] They
are part of the Albertine Rift Mountains that flank the Albertine branch of
the East African Rift,
which runs from north to south along Rwanda's western border.[144] The
highest peaks are found in the Virunga volcano
chain in the northwest; this includes Mount Karisimbi,
Rwanda's highest point, at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).[145] This
western section of the country lies within the Albertine
Rift montane forests ecoregion.[144] It
has an elevation of 1,500 to 2,500 metres (4,921 to 8,202 ft).[146] The
centre of the country is predominantly rolling hills, while the eastern border
region consists of savanna,
plains and swamps.[147]
Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate, with lower temperatures than are typical for equatorial countries because of its high elevation.[136] Kigali, in the centre of the country, has a typical daily temperature range between 12 and 27 °C (54 and 81 °F), with little variation through the year.[148] There are some temperature variations across the country; the mountainous west and north are generally cooler than the lower-lying east.[149] There are two rainy seasons in the year; the first runs from February to June and the second from September to December. These are separated by two dry seasons: the major one from June to September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less severe one from December to February.[150] Rainfall varies geographically, with the west and northwest of the country receiving more precipitation annually than the east and southeast.[151] Global warming has caused a change in the pattern of the rainy seasons. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, change in climate has reduced the number of rainy days experienced during a year, but has also caused an increase in frequency of torrential rains.[152] Both changes have caused difficulty for farmers, decreasing their productivity.[153] Strategic Foresight also characterise Rwanda as a fast warming country, with an increase in average temperature of between 0.7 °C to 0.9 °C over fifty years.[152]
|
hideClimate data
for Kigali, Rwanda |
|||||||||||||
|
Month |
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Year |
|
Average high °C (°F) |
26.9 |
27.4 |
26.9 |
26.2 |
25.9 |
26.4 |
27.1 |
28.0 |
28.2 |
27.2 |
26.1 |
26.4 |
26.9 |
|
Average low °C (°F) |
15.6 |
15.8 |
15.7 |
16.1 |
16.2 |
15.3 |
15.0 |
16.0 |
16.0 |
15.9 |
15.5 |
15.6 |
15.7 |
|
Average precipitation mm (inches) |
76.9 |
91.0 |
114.2 |
154.2 |
88.1 |
18.6 |
11.4 |
31.1 |
69.6 |
105.7 |
112.7 |
77.4 |
950.9 |
|
Average
precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) |
11 |
11 |
15 |
18 |
13 |
2 |
1 |
4 |
10 |
17 |
17 |
14 |
133 |
|
Source: [148] |
|||||||||||||
Biodiversity[edit]
Main
article: Wildlife
of Rwanda
Topis in
Akagera National Park
In prehistoric
times montane forest occupied
one-third of the territory of present-day Rwanda. Naturally occurring
vegetation is now mostly restricted to the three National
Parks, with terraced
agriculture dominating the rest of the
country.[154] Nyungwe,
the largest remaining tract of forest, contains 200 species of tree as well
as orchids and begonias.[155] Vegetation
in the Volcanoes
National Park is
mostly bamboo and
moorland, with small areas of forest.[154] By
contrast, Akagera has a savanna ecosystem
in which acacia dominates
the flora. There are several rare or endangered plant species in Akagera,
including Markhamia lutea and Eulophia
guineensis.[156]
The greatest
diversity of large mammals is found in the three National Parks, which are
designated conservation areas.[157] Akagera
contains typical savanna animals such as giraffes and elephants,[158] while
Volcanoes is home to an estimated one-third of the worldwide mountain gorilla population.[159] Nyungwe
Forest boasts thirteen primate species including common chimpanzees and Ruwenzori
colobus arboreal monkeys; the
Ruwenzori colobus move in groups of up to 400 individuals, the largest troop
size of any primate in Africa.[160]
Giraffe
in Akagera National Park
Rwanda's population
of lions was
destroyed in the aftermath of the genocide of 1994, as national parks were turned
into camps for displaced people and remaining animals were poisoned by cattle
herders. In June 2015, two South African parks donated seven lions to Akagera
National Park, reestablishing a
lion population in Rwanda.[161] The
lions were held initially in a fenced off area of the park, and then collared
and released into the wild a month later.[162]
There are 670 bird
species in Rwanda, with variation
between the east and the west.[163] Nyungwe
Forest, in the west, has 280 recorded species, of which 26 are endemic to the
Albertine Rift;[163] endemic
species include the Rwenzori turaco and handsome spurfowl.[164] Eastern
Rwanda, by contrast, features savanna birds such as the black-headed
gonolek and those associated with
swamps and lakes, including storks and cranes.[163]
Recent
entomological work in the country has revealed a rich diversity of praying mantises,[165] including
a new species Dystacta tigrifrutex, dubbed the "bush tiger
mantis".[166]
Economy[edit]
Main
article: Economy of Rwanda
Coffee
beans drying in Maraba.
Coffee is one of Rwanda's major cash crops.
Rwanda's economy
suffered heavily during the 1994 genocide, with widespread loss of life,
failure to maintain infrastructure, looting, and neglect of important cash
crops. This caused a large drop in GDP and destroyed the country's ability to
attract private and external investment.[62] The
economy has since strengthened, with per-capita GDP (PPP)
estimated at $2,444
in 2019,[167] compared
with $416 in 1994.[168] Major
export markets include China, Germany, and the United States.[62] The
economy is managed by the central National
Bank of Rwanda and the
currency is the Rwandan franc;
in December 2019, the exchange rate was 910 francs to one United States dollar.[169] Rwanda
joined the East African Community in 2007, and has ratified a plan for monetary union amongst
the five member nations,[170] which
could eventually lead to a common East
African shilling.[171]
Rwanda is a country
of few natural resources,[136] and
the economy is based mostly on subsistence
agriculture by local farmers using
simple tools.[172] An
estimated 90% of the working population farms, and agriculture constituted an
estimated 32.5% of GDP in 2014.[62] Farming
techniques are basic, with small plots of land and steep slopes.[173] Since
the mid-1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing, due in part
to the resettlement of displaced people.[174][136] Despite
Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food production often does not keep pace with
population growth, and food imports are required,[62]But
in recent years, with the growth of agriculture, the situation has improved.
Subsistence crops
grown in the country include matoke (green
bananas), which occupy more than a third of the country's farmland,[173] potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes, cassava, wheat and maize.[173] Coffee
and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep
slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions.[173] Reports
have established that more than 400,000 Rwandans make their living from coffee
plantation.[175] Reliance
on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.[176] Animals
raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken, and rabbits, with
geographical variation in the numbers of each.[177] Production
systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms
around Kigali.[177] Shortages
of land and water, insufficient and poor-quality feed, and regular disease
epidemics with insufficient veterinary services are major constraints that
restrict output. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are
very depleted, and live fish are being imported in an attempt to revive the
industry.[178]
The industrial
sector is small, contributing 14.8% of GDP in 2014.[62] Products
manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages,
soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles and cigarettes.[62] Rwanda's
mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in
2008.[179] Minerals
mined include cassiterite, wolframite,
gold, and coltan,
which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such
as mobile phones.[179][180]
Mountain gorillas in
Volcanoes National Park
Rwanda's service sector suffered
during the late-2000s
recession as bank lending, foreign
aid projects and investment were reduced.[181] The
sector rebounded in 2010, becoming the country's largest sector by economic
output and contributing 43.6% of the country's GDP.[62] Key
tertiary contributors include banking and finance, wholesale and retail trade,
hotels and restaurants, transport, storage, communication, insurance, real
estate, business services and public administration including education and
health.[181] Tourism is
one of the fastest-growing economic resources and became the country's leading
foreign exchange earner in 2007.[182] In
spite of the genocide's legacy, the country is increasingly perceived
internationally as a safe destination.[183] The
number of tourist arrivals in 2013 was 864,000 people, up from 504,000 in 2010.[58] Revenue
from tourism was US$303 million in 2014, up from just US$62 million
in 2000.[184] The
largest contributor to this revenue was mountain gorilla tracking,
in the Volcanoes National Park;[184] Rwanda
is one of only two countries in which mountain gorillas can
be visited safely; the gorillas attract thousands of visitors per year, who are
prepared to pay high prices for permits.[185] Other
attractions include Nyungwe Forest, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus and
other primates, the resorts of Lake Kivu, and Akagera, a small savanna reserve in
the east of the country.[186]
Media and communications[edit]
Main
article: Telecommunications
in Rwanda
The largest radio
and television stations are state-run, and the majority of newspapers are owned
by the government.[187] Most
Rwandans have access to radio; during the 1994 genocide, the radio
station Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines broadcast
across the country, and helped to fuel the killings through anti-Tutsi
propaganda.[187] As
of 2015, the state-run Radio Rwanda is
the largest station and the main source of news throughout the country.[187] Television
access is limited, with most homes not having their own set.[188] The
government rolled out digital television in
2014, and a year later there were seven national stations operating, up from
just one in the pre-2014 analogue era.[189] The
press is tightly restricted, and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid
government reprisals.[187] Nonetheless,
publications in Kinyarwanda, English, and French critical of the government are
widely available in Kigali. Restrictions were increased in the run-up to the
Rwandan presidential election of 2010, with two independent newspapers, Umuseso and Umuvugizi,
being suspended for six months by the High Media Council.[190]
The country's
oldest telecommunications group, Rwandatel,
went into liquidation in 2011, having been 80% owned by Libyan company LAP
Green.[191] The
company was acquired in 2013 by Liquid
Telecom,[192] a
company providing telecommunications and fibre optic networks
across eastern and southern Africa.[193] As
of 2015, Liquid Telecom provides landline service
to 30,968 subscribers, with mobile operator MTN Rwanda serving
an additional 15,497 fixed line subscribers.[194] Landlines
are mostly used by government institutions, banks, NGOs and
embassies, with private subscription levels low.[195] As
of 2015, mobile phone penetration
in the country is 72.6%,[196] up
from 41.6% in 2011.[197] MTN
Rwanda is the leading provider, with 3,957,986 subscribers, followed by Tigo with
2,887,328, and Bharti Airtel with
1,336,679.[194] Rwandatel
has also previously operated a mobile phone network, but the industry regulator
revoked its licence in April 2011, following the company's failure to meet
agreed investment commitments.[198] Internet
penetration is low but rising rapidly; in 2015 there were 12.8 internet users
per 100 people,[196] up
from 2.1 in 2007.[199] In
2011, a 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) fibre-optic telecommunications network
was completed, intended to provide broadband services and facilitate electronic
commerce.[200] This
network is connected to SEACOM,
a submarine fibre-optic
cable connecting communication carriers in southern and eastern Africa. Within
Rwanda the cables run along major roads, linking towns around the country.[200] Mobile
provider MTN also runs a wireless internet service
accessible in most areas of Kigali via pre-paid subscription.[201]
In October
2019, Mara Corporation launched
the first African made smartphone in Rwanda.[202]
Infrastructure[edit]
Main
articles: Transport
in Rwanda, Energy in Rwanda,
and Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Rural
water pump
The Rwandan
government prioritised funding of water supply development during the 2000s,
significantly increasing its share of the national budget.[203] This
funding, along with donor support, caused a rapid increase in access to safe
water; in 2015, 74% of the population had access to safe water,[204] up
from about 55% in 2005;[203] the
government has committed to increasing this to 100% by 2017.[204] The
country's water infrastructure consists of urban and rural systems that deliver
water to the public, mainly through standpipes in rural areas and private
connections in urban areas. In areas not served by these systems, hand pumps
and managed springs are used.[205] Despite
rainfall exceeding 750 millimetres (30 in) annually in most of the
country,[206] little
use is made of rainwater
harvesting, and residents are forced to use
water very sparingly, relative to usage in other African countries.[204] Access
to sanitation remains
low; the United Nations estimates that in 2006, 34% of urban and 20% of rural
dwellers had access to improved sanitation.[207] Government
policy measures to improve sanitation are limited, focusing only on urban
areas.[207] The
majority of the population, both urban and rural, use public shared pit latrines.[207]
Rwanda's
electricity supply was, until the early 2000s, generated almost entirely
from hydroelectric sources;
power stations on Lakes Burera and Ruhondo provided
90% of the country's electricity.[208] A
combination of below average rainfall and human activity, including the
draining of the Rugezi
wetlands for cultivation and
grazing, caused the two lakes' water levels to fall from 1990 onwards; by 2004
levels were reduced by 50%, leading to a sharp drop in output from the power
stations.[209] This,
coupled with increased demand as the economy grew, precipitated a shortfall in
2004 and widespread loadshedding.[209] As
an emergency measure, the government installed diesel generators north
of Kigali; by 2006 these were providing 56% of the country's electricity, but
were very costly.[209] The
government enacted a number of measures to alleviate this problem, including
rehabilitating the Rugezi wetlands, which supply water to Burera and Ruhondo
and investing in a scheme to extract methane gas from Lake Kivu, expected in its
first phase to increase the country's power generation by 40%.[210] Only
18% of the population had access to electricity in 2012, though this had risen
from 10.8% in 2009.[211] The
government's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2013–18
aims to increase access to electricity to 70% of households by 2017.[212]
The government has
increased investment in the transport
infrastructure of Rwanda since the
1994 genocide, with aid from the United States, European Union,
Japan, and others. The transport system consists primarily of the road network,
with paved roads between Kigali and most other major cities and towns in the
country.[213] Rwanda
is linked by road to other countries in the East African Community, namely
Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Kenya,
as well as to the eastern Congolese cities of Goma and Bukavu;
the country's most important trade route is the road to the port of Mombasa via Kampala and Nairobi,
which is known as the Northern Corridor.[214] The
principal form of public transport in the country is the minibus,
accounting for more than half of all passenger carrying capacity.[215] Some
minibuses, particularly in Kigali,[216] operate
an unscheduled service, under a shared taxi system,[217] while
others run to a schedule, offering express routes between the major cities.
There are a smaller number of large buses,[215] which
operate a scheduled service around the country. The principal private hire
vehicle is the motorcycle taxi;
in 2013 there were 9,609 registered motorcycle taxis in Rwanda, compared with
just 579 taxicabs.[215] Coach services
are available to various destinations in neighbouring countries. The country
has an international
airport at Kigali that serves
several international destinations, the busiest routes being those to Nairobi and Entebbe;[218] there
is one domestic route, between Kigali and Kamembe Airport near Cyangugu.[219] In
2017, construction began on the Bugesera
International Airport, to the south of
Kigali, which will become the country's largest when it opens, complementing
the existing Kigali airport.[220] The
national carrier is RwandAir,
and the country is served by seven foreign airlines.[218] As
of 2015 the country has no railways, but there is a project underway, in
conjunction with Burundi and Tanzania, to extend the Tanzanian Central
Line into Rwanda; the three countries have invited
expressions of interest from private firms to form a public
private partnership for the
scheme.[221] There
is no public water transport between the port cities on Lake Kivu, although a
limited private service exists and the government has initiated a programme to
develop a full service.[222] The Ministry
of Infrastructure is also
investigating the feasibility of linking Rwanda to Lake Victoria via
shipping on the Akagera River.[222]
Demographics[edit]
Main
articles: Demographics
of Rwanda and Youth in Rwanda
As of 2015,
the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda estimates
Rwanda's population to be 11,262,564.[223] The
2012 census recorded a population of 10,515,973.[3] The
population is young: in the 2012 census, 43.3% of the population were aged 15
and under, and 53.4% were between 16 and 64.[224] According
to the CIA World Factbook,
the annual birth rate is estimated at 40.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants in
2015, and the death rate at 14.9.[62] The
life expectancy is 67.67 years (69.27 years for females and
67.11 years for males), which is the 26th lowest out of 224 countries and
territories.[62][225] The
overall sex ratio of the country is 95.9 males per 100 females.[62]
Rural
children
At 445 inhabitants
per square kilometre (1,150/sq mi),[223] Rwanda's
population density is amongst the highest in Africa.[226] Historians
such as Gérard Prunier believe
that the 1994 genocide can be partly attributed to the population density.[45] The
population is predominantly rural, with a few large towns; dwellings are evenly
spread throughout the country.[227] The
only sparsely populated area of the country is the savanna land in the former
province of Umutara and
Akagera National Park in the east.[228] Kigali
is the largest city, with a population of around one million.[229] Its
rapidly increasing population challenges its infrastructural development.[62][230][231] According
to the 2012 census, the second largest city is Gisenyi,
which lies adjacent to Lake Kivu and
the Congolese city of Goma,
and has a population of 126,000.[232] Other
major towns include Ruhengeri, Butare,
and Muhanga,
all with populations below 100,000.[232] The
urban population rose from 6% of the population in 1990,[230] to
16.6% in 2006;[233] by
2011, however, the proportion had dropped slightly, to 14.8%.[233]
Rwanda has been a
unified state since pre-colonial times,[33] and
the population is drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda;[234] this
contrasts with most modern African states, whose borders were drawn by colonial
powers and did not correspond to ethnic boundaries or
pre-colonial kingdoms.[235] Within
the Banyarwanda people, there are three separate groups, the Hutu, Tutsi and
Twa.[236] The
CIA World Factbook gives estimates that the Hutu made up 84%
of the population in 2009, the Tutsi 15% and Twa 1%.[62] The
Twa are a pygmy people who descend from Rwanda's earliest inhabitants, but
scholars do not agree on the origins of and differences between the Hutu and
Tutsi.[237] Anthropologist
Jean Hiernaux contends that the Tutsi are a separate race, with a tendency
towards "long and narrow heads, faces and noses";[238] others,
such as Villia Jefremovas, believe there is no discernible physical difference
and the categories were not historically rigid.[239] In
precolonial Rwanda the Tutsi were the ruling class, from whom the kings and the
majority of chiefs were derived, while the Hutu were agriculturalists.[240] The
current government discourages
the Hutu/Tutsi/Twa distinction, and has removed such classification from
identity cards.[241] The
2002 census was the first since 1933[242] which
did not categorise Rwandan population into the three groups.[243]
Religion[edit]
Main
article: Religion
in Rwanda
Roman
Catholic church in Rwamagana
The largest faith
in Rwanda is Roman
Catholicism, but there have been significant
changes in the nation's religious demographics since the genocide, with many
conversions to evangelical Christianity,
and, to a lesser degree, Islam.[244] According
to the 2012 census, Roman Catholics represented 43.7% of the population,
Protestants (excluding Seventh-day
Adventists) 37.7%, Seventh-day Adventists
11.8%, and Muslims 2.0%; 0.2% claimed no religious beliefs and 1.3% did not
state a religion.[245] Traditional
religion, despite officially being followed by only 0.1% of the population,
retains an influence. Many Rwandans view the Christian God as
synonymous with the traditional Rwandan God Imana.[246]
Languages[edit]
Main
article: Languages
of Rwanda
The country's
principal language is Kinyarwanda,
which is spoken by nearly all Rwandans. The major European languages during the
colonial era were German,
though it was never taught or widely used, and then French,
which was introduced by Belgium from 1916 and remained an official and widely
spoken language after independence in 1962.[247] Dutch was
spoken too. The return of English-speaking Rwandan refugees in the 1990s[247] added
a new dimension to the country's linguistic diversity.[248] Kinyarwanda,
English, French, and Swahili are all official languages. Kinyarwanda is the
national language while English is the primary medium of instruction in
secondary and tertiary education. Swahili,
the lingua franca of
the East
African Community,[249] is
also spoken by some as a second language, particularly returned refugees from
Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, and those who
live along the border with the DRC.[250] In
2015, Swahili was introduced as a mandatory subject in secondary schools.[249] Inhabitants
of Rwanda's Nkombo
Island speak Mashi,
a language closely related to Kinyarwanda.[251]
Sexuality[edit]
See
also: LGBT
rights in Rwanda
Homosexuality is
generally considered a taboo topic,
and there is no significant public discussion of this issue in any region of
the country.[252]
Same-sex sexual
activity is legal in Rwanda, and some cabinet-level government officials have
expressed support for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender people.[253] However,
Rwanda does not recognise same-sex marriages, civil unions or similar unions.[254]
Culture[edit]
Main
article: Culture of Rwanda
Traditional
Rwandan intore dancers
Music and
dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings
and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed
routine consisting of three components: the umushagiriro,
or cow dance, performed by women;[255] the intore,
or dance of heroes, performed by men;[255] and
the drumming, also traditionally performed by men, on drums known as ingoma.[256] The
best known dance group is the National
Ballet. It was established by President Habyarimana in 1974,
and performs nationally and internationally.[257] Traditionally,
music is transmitted orally, with styles varying between the social groups.
Drums are of great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within
the court of the King (Mwami).[258] Drummers
play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in
number.[259] The
country has a growing popular music industry, influenced by African Great
Lakes, Congolese, and American music. The most popular genre is hip hop,
with a blend of dancehall, rap, ragga, R&B and dance-pop.[260]
Rwandan
woven basket
Traditional arts
and crafts are produced throughout the country, although most originated as
functional items rather than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are
especially common.[261] Imigongo,
a unique cow dung art, is produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history
dating back to when the region was part of the independent Gisaka kingdom.
The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into
patterned ridges to form geometric shapes.[262] Other
crafts include pottery and wood carving.[263] Traditional
housing styles make use of locally available materials; circular or rectangular
mud homes with grass-thatched roofs (known as nyakatsi) are the
most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with
more modern materials such as corrugated iron.[264][265]
Rwanda does not
have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition
ranging from poetry to folk stories.
Many of the country's moral values and details of history have been passed down
through the generations.[266] The
most famous Rwandan literary figure was Alexis Kagame (1912–1981),
who carried out and published research into oral traditions as well as writing
his own poetry.[267] The
Rwandan Genocide resulted in the emergence of a literature of witness accounts,
essays and fiction by a new generation of writers such as Benjamin Sehene.
A number of films have been produced about the Rwandan Genocide, including
the Golden Globe-nominated Hotel Rwanda, 100
Days, Shake Hands with the Devil, Sometimes
in April, and Shooting Dogs,
the last four having been filmed in Rwanda and having featured survivors as
cast members.[268][269]
Fourteen
regular national
holidays are observed throughout the
year,[270] with
others occasionally inserted by the government. The week following Genocide
Memorial Day on 7 April is designated an official week of mourning.[271] The
victory for the RPF over the Hutu extremists is celebrated as Liberation Day on
4 July. The last Saturday of each month is umuganda,
a national morning of mandatory community service lasting
from 8 am to 11 am, during which all able bodied people between 18
and 65 are expected to carry out community tasks such as cleaning streets or
building homes for vulnerable people.[272] Most
normal services close down during umuganda, and public
transportation is limited.[272]
Cuisine[edit]
Main
article: Cuisine of Rwanda
The cuisine of
Rwanda is based on local staple foods produced
by subsistence agriculture such as bananas, plantains (known as ibitoke), pulses, sweet potatoes,
beans, and cassava (manioc).[273] Many
Rwandans do not eat meat more than a few times a month.[273] For
those who live near lakes and have access to fish, tilapia is
popular.[273] The
potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian colonialists,
is very popular.[274] Ugali,
locally known as Ubugari (or umutsima)
is common, a paste made from cassava or maize and water to form a porridge-like
consistency that is eaten throughout the African Great Lakes.[275] Isombe is
made from mashed cassava leaves and served with dried fish.[274] Lunch
is usually a buffet known as mélange, consisting of the above
staples and sometimes meat.[276] Brochettes are
the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from goat
but sometimes tripe,
beef, or fish.[276] In
rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and
slaughtering the goats, skewering and barbecuing the
meat, and serving it with grilled bananas.[277] Milk,
particularly in a fermented yoghurt form called ikivuguto,
is a common drink throughout the country.[278] Other
drinks include a traditional beer called Ikigage made from sorghum and urwagwa,
made from bananas, which features in traditional rituals and ceremonies.[274] The
major drinks manufacturer in Rwanda is Bralirwa,
which was established in the 1950s, a Heineken partner, and is now listed on
the Rwandan
Stock Exchange.[279] Bralirwa
manufactures soft drink products
from The
Coca-Cola Company, under license,
including Coca-Cola, Fanta,
and Sprite,[280] and
a range of beers including Primus, Mützig, Amstel,
and Turbo
King.[281] In
2009 a new brewery, Brasseries des Mille Collines (BMC)
opened, manufacturing Skol beer
and a local version known as Skol
Gatanu;[282] BMC
is now owned by Belgian company Unibra.[283] East
African Breweries also operate
in the country, importing Guinness, Tusker,
and Bell,
as well as whisky and spirits.[284]
Sport[edit]
Main
article: Sport in Rwanda
Adrien Niyonshuti,
"one of the most famous people in Rwanda",[285] competing
in the cross-country
mountain biking event at the
2012 Summer Olympics
The Rwandan
government, through its Sports Development Policy, promotes sport as a strong
avenue for "development and peace building",[286] and
the government has made commitments to advancing the use of sport for a variety
of development objectives, including education.[287] The
most popular sports in Rwanda are association
football, volleyball, basketball, athletics and Paralympic sports.[288] Cricket has
been growing in popularity,[289] as
a result of refugees returned from Kenya, where they had learned to play the
game.[290] Cycling,
traditionally seen largely as a mode of transport in Rwanda, is also growing in
popularity as a sport;[291] and
Team Rwanda have been the subject of a book, Land of Second Chances:
The Impossible Rise of Rwanda's Cycling Team and a film, Rising from Ashes.[292][293]
Rwandans have been
competing at the Olympic Games since
1984,[294] and
the Paralympic Games since
2004.[295] The
country sent seven competitors to the 2012 Summer
Olympics in London, representing it
in athletics, swimming, mountain biking and judo,[294] and
15 competitors to the London
Summer Paralympics to compete in
athletics, powerlifting and sitting volleyball.[295] The
country has also participated in the Commonwealth Games since
joining the Commonwealth in
2009.[296][297] The
country's national
basketball team has been
growing in prominence since the mid-2000s, with the men's team qualifying for
the final stages of the African
Basketball Championship four times in
a row since 2007.[298] The
country bid unsuccessfully to host the 2013
tournament.[299][300] Rwanda's national
football team has appeared
in the African
Cup of Nations once, in
the 2004
edition of the tournament,[301] but
narrowly failed to advance beyond the group stages.[302] The
team have failed to qualify for the competition since, and have never qualified
for the World Cup.[303] Rwanda's
highest domestic football competition is the Rwanda
National Football League;[304] as
of 2015, the dominant team is APR FC of
Kigali, having won 13 of the last 17 championships.[305] Rwandan
clubs participate in the Kagame Interclub
Cup for Central and East African teams, sponsored
since 2002 by President Kagame.[306]
Education[edit]
Main
article: Education
in Rwanda
Children
in a Rwandan primary school, using laptops supplied by the One Laptop Per
Child program
Prior to 2012, the
Rwandan government provided free education in state-run schools for nine years:
six years in primary and three years following a common secondary programme.[307] In
2012, this started to be expanded to 12 years.[308] A
2015 study suggests that while enrollment rates in primary schools are
"near ubiquity", rates of completion are low and repetition rates high.[309] While
schooling is fee-free, there is an expectation that parents should contribute
to the cost of their children's education by providing them with materials,
supporting teacher development and making a contribution to school
construction. According to the government, these costs should not be a basis
for the exclusion of children from education, however.[308] There
are many private schools across the country, some church-run, which follow the
same syllabus but charge fees.[310] From
1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English;
because of the country's increasing ties with the East
African Community and the Commonwealth,
only the English syllabi are now offered.[311] The
country has a number of institutions of tertiary education. In 2013, the
public University of
Rwanda (UR) was created out of a merger of the
former National
University of Rwanda and the
country's other public higher education institutions.[312][313][314] In
2013, the gross
enrollment ratio for tertiary
education in Rwanda was 7.9%, from 3.6% in 2006.[315] The
country's literacy rate,
defined as those aged 15 or over who can read and write, was 71% in 2009, up
from 38% in 1978 and 58% in 1991.[316]
Health[edit]
Main
articles: Healthcare
in Rwanda and Health in Rwanda
Butaro Hospital at Burera,
Northern Province
The quality of
healthcare in Rwanda has historically been very low, both before and
immediately after the 1994 genocide.[317] In
1998, more than one in five children died before their fifth birthday,[318] often
from malaria.[319]
President Kagame
has made healthcare one of the priorities for the Vision 2020 development
programme,[320] boosting
spending on health care to 6.5% of the country's gross
domestic product in 2013,[321] compared
with 1.9% in 1996.[322] The
government has devolved the financing and management of healthcare to local
communities, through a system of health insurance providers called mutuelles
de santé.[323] The mutuelles were
piloted in 1999, and were made available nationwide by the mid-2000s, with the
assistance of international development partners.[323] Premiums
under the scheme were initially US$2
per annum; since 2011 the rate has varied on a sliding scale, with the poorest
paying nothing, and maximum premiums rising to US$8 per adult.[324] As
of 2014, more than 90% of the population was covered by the scheme.[325] The
government has also set up training institutes including the Kigali Health
Institute (KHI), which was established in 1997[326] and
is now part of the University of
Rwanda. In 2005, President Kagame also launched a program
known as The Presidents' Malaria Initiative.[327] This
initiative aimed to help get the most necessary materials for prevention of
malaria to the most rural areas of Rwanda, such as mosquito nets and
medication.
In recent years
Rwanda has seen improvement on a number of key health indicators. Between 2005
and 2013, life expectancy increased from 55.2 to 64.0,[328] under-5
mortality decreased from 106.4 to 52.0 per 1,000 live births,[329] and
incidence of tuberculosis has
dropped from 101 to 69 per 100,000 people.[330] The
country's progress in healthcare has been cited by the international media and
charities. The Atlantic devoted
an article to "Rwanda's Historic Health Recovery".[331] Partners In Health described
the health gains "among the most dramatic the world has seen in the last
50 years".[324]
Despite these
improvements, however, the country's health profile remains dominated by
communicable diseases,[332] and
the United States Agency for International Development has
described "significant health challenges",[333] including
the rate of maternal mortality, which it describes as "unacceptably
high",[333] as
well as the ongoing HIV/AIDS epidemic.[333] According
to the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
travelers to Rwanda are highly recommended to take preventive malaria medication
as well as make sure they are up to date with vaccines such as yellow fever.[334]
Rwanda also has a
shortage of medical professionals, with only 0.84 physicians, nurses, and
midwives per 1,000 residents.[335] The United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is
monitoring the country's health progress towards Millennium
Development Goals 4–6, which
relate to healthcare. A mid-2015 UNDP report noted that the country was not on
target to meet goal 4 on infant mortality, despite it having "fallen
dramatically";[336] the
country is "making good progress" towards goal 5, which is to reduce
by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio,[337] while
goal 6 is not yet met as HIV prevalence has
not started falling.[338]
See
also[edit]
·
Index
of Rwanda-related articles
Notes[edit]
1.
^ /ruˈɑːndə, -ˈæn-/ (
listen); Kinyarwanda: u
Rwanda [u.ɾɡwaː.nda] (listen)
1.
^ "Rwanda: A Brief History of
the Country". United
Nations. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
2.
^ National
Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (2019). "Size of the resident
population". National
Institute of Statistics of Rwanda. Retrieved 4 April2020.
3.
^ Jump up to:a b National Institute of Statistics
of Rwanda 2014, p. 3.
4.
^ Jump up to:a b c d "World Economic Outlook
Database, October 2019". www.imf.org. International
Monetary Fund.
5.
^ World Bank (XII).
6.
^ "Human Development Report
2019"(PDF). United
Nations Development Programme.
10 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
7.
^ United
Nations – List of countries by population (United Nations)
8.
^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 44.
9.
^ Dorsey 1994,
p. 36.
10. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 45.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mamdani 2002,
p. 61.
12. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 58.
13. ^ Jump up to:a b King 2007,
p. 75.
14. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 16.
15. ^ Mamdani 2002,
p. 58.
16. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 69.
18. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 88.
19. ^ Chrétien 2003,
pp. 88–89.
20. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 141.
21. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 482.
22. ^ Jump up to:a b Chrétien 2003,
p. 160.
23. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mamdani 2002,
p. 69.
24. ^ Prunier 1995,
pp. 13–14.
25. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 6.
26. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 217.
27. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 9.
28. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 25.
29. ^ See
also Helmut Strizek, "Geschenkte Kolonien: Ruanda und Burundi unter
deutscher Herrschaft", Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2006
30. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 260.
31. ^ Chrétien 2003,
p. 270.
32. ^ Chrétien 2003,
pp. 276–277.
33. ^ Jump up to:a b Appiah & Gates 2010,
p. 450.
34. ^ Gourevitch 2000,
pp. 56–57.
35. ^ United Nations (II).
36. ^ United Nations (III).
37. ^ Linden & Linden 1977,
p. 267.
38. ^ Gourevitch 2000,
pp. 58–59.
39. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 51.
40. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 53.
41. ^ Karuhanga,
James (30 June 2018). "Independence Day: Did
Rwanda really gain independence on July 1, 1962?". The
New Times. Archived from
the original on 30 June 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
42. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 56.
43. ^ Prunier 1995,
pp. 74–76.
44. ^ Jump up to:a b UNPO 2008,
History.
45. ^ Jump up to:a b Prunier 1995,
p. 4.
46. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 93.
47. ^ Prunier 1995,
pp. 135–136.
48. ^ Prunier 1995,
pp. 190–191.
49. ^ BBC News (III) 2010.
50. ^ Henley 2007.
51. ^ Dallaire 2005,
p. 386.
52. ^ Dallaire 2005,
p. 299.
53. ^ Dallaire 2005,
p. 364.
54. ^ Prunier 1995,
p. 312.
55. ^ Jump up to:a b BBC News (V) 2010.
56. ^ Bowcott 2014.
57. ^ World Bank (X).
58. ^ Jump up to:a b World Bank (XI).
59. ^ UNDP (I) 2010.
60. ^ National Institute of Statistics
of Rwanda 2012.
61. ^ UNDP (V) 2013,
p. 2.
62. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q CIA (I).
66. ^ Jump up to:a b CJCR 2003,
article 110.
69. ^ CJCR 2003,
articles 100–101.
71. ^ Lacey 2003.
72. ^ BBC News (IV) 2010.
73. ^ Human Rights Watch 2010.
74. ^ Mufulukye 2015.
75. ^ Uwiringiyamana (I) 2015.
76. ^ Uwiringiyamana (II) 2015.
77. ^ Burke 2017.
78. ^ Human Rights Watch 2017.
79. ^ Panapress 2003.
82. ^ National Commission for the Fight
against Genocide 2008, p. 1.
84. ^ Amnesty International 2015,
p. 311.
87. ^ Kwibuka 2018.
88. ^ Munyaneza 2013.
89. ^ Inter-Parliamentary Union 2020.
93. ^ Human Rights Watch & Wells
2008, I. Summary.
94. ^ Human Rights Watch & Wells
2008, VIII. Independence of the Judiciary.
95. ^ Jump up to:a b CJCR 2003,
article 143.
96. ^ Kamere 2011.
97. ^ BBC News (VIII) 2015.
98. ^ Walker & March 2004.
99. ^ BBC News (IX) 2012.
100.
^ Transparency International 2014.
101.
^ Agutamba 2014.
102.
^ CJCR 2003,
article 182.
103.
^ Office of the Ombudsman.
104.
^ Asiimwe 2011.
105.
^ Clark 2010.
106.
^ Freedom House 2015.
107.
^ Amnesty International 2015,
p. 310.
108.
^ United Nations (I).
109.
^ Francophonie.
110.
^ Grainger 2007.
111.
^ Fletcher 2009.
112.
^ Prunier 1995,
p. 89.
113.
^ Porter 2008.
114.
^ Xinhua News Agency 2015.
115.
^ USA Today 2008.
116.
^ Al Jazeera 2007.
117.
^ BBC News (X) 2012.
118.
^ Agence Africaine de Presse 2015.
119.
^ Heuler 2011.
120.
^ BBC News (VI) 2011.
121.
^ Maboja 2015.
122.
^ Malingha,
David (8 March 2019). "Why a Closed Border Has
Uganda, Rwanda at Loggerheads".
Bloomberg. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
123.
^ Butera,
Saul; Ojambo, Fred (21 February 2020). "Uganda, Rwanda Hold Talks
On Security Concerns, Reopening Border".
Bloomberg. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
124.
^ Ministry of Defence.
125.
^ McGreal 2010.
127.
^ Melvern 2004,
p. 5.
129.
^ Jump up to:a b MINALOC 2007,
p. 8.
130.
^ Southern Province.
131.
^ Jump up to:a b MINALOC 2007,
p. 9.
132.
^ Jump up to:a b MINALOC 2004.
133.
^ BBC News (I) 2006.
134.
^ Jump up to:a b CIA (II).
135.
^ Richards 1994.
136.
^ Jump up to:a b c d U.S. Department of State 2004.
137.
^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2010.
138.
^ Nile Basin Initiative 2010.
139.
^ BBC News (II) 2006.
140.
^ Jørgensen 2005,
p. 93.
141.
^ Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 153.
143.
^ Christophe
Migeon. "Voyage au Rwanda, le pays des
Mille Collines" (In
French), Le Point,
26 May 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
144.
^ Jump up to:a b WWF 2001,
Location and General Description.
145.
^ Mehta & Katee 2005,
p. 37.
146.
^ Munyakazi & Ntagaramba 2005,
p. 7.
147.
^ Munyakazi & Ntagaramba 2005,
p. 18.
148.
^ Jump up to:a b World Meteorological Organization.
149.
^ Best Country Reports 2007.
151.
^ Adekunle 2007,
p. 1.
152.
^ Jump up to:a b Strategic Foresight Group 2013,
p. 29.
153.
^ Bucyensenge 2014.
154.
^ Jump up to:a b Briggs & Booth 2006,
pp. 3–4.
156.
^ REMA (Chapter 5) 2009,
p. 3.
157.
^ Government of Rwanda (II).
159.
^ RDB (I) 2010.
160.
^ Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 140.
161.
^ Smith 2015.
162.
^ The New Times 2015.
163.
^ Jump up to:a b c King 2007,
p. 15.
165.
^ Tedrow 2015.
166.
^ Maynard 2014.
167.
^ "Report for Selected
Countries and Subjects". www.imf.org.
169.
^ "USD–RWF 2019 Yaohoo".
2019.
170.
^ Asiimwe 2014.
171.
^ Lavelle 2008.
172.
^ FAO / WFP 1997.
173.
^ Jump up to:a b c d Our Africa.
175.
^ Tumwebaze 2016.
177.
^ Jump up to:a b MINAGRI 2006.
178.
^ Namata 2008.
179.
^ Jump up to:a b Mukaaya 2009.
180.
^ Delawala 2001.
181.
^ Jump up to:a b Nantaba 2010.
182.
^ Mukaaya 2008.
183.
^ Nielsen & Spenceley 2010,
p. 6.
184.
^ Jump up to:a b KT Press 2015.
185.
^ Nielsen & Spenceley 2010,
p. 2.
187.
^ Jump up to:a b c d BBC News (VII) 2015.
188.
^ Gasore 2014.
189.
^ Opobo 2015.
190.
^ Reporters Without Borders 2010.
191.
^ Mugisha 2013.
192.
^ Southwood 2013.
193.
^ Mugwe 2013.
194.
^ Jump up to:a b RURA 2015,
p. 6.
195.
^ Majyambere 2010.
196.
^ Jump up to:a b RURA 2015,
p. 5.
198.
^ Butera 2011.
199.
^ World Bank (II).
200.
^ Jump up to:a b Reuters 2011.
201.
^ Butera 2010.
202.
^ "Rwanda launches first 'Made
in Africa' smartphones". Reuters.
10 October 2019. Retrieved 10 October2019.
203.
^ Jump up to:a b IDA 2009.
204.
^ Jump up to:a b c Umutesi 2015.
205.
^ MINECOFIN 2002,
pp. 25–26.
206.
^ Berry, Lewis & Williams 1990,
p. 533.
207.
^ Jump up to:a b c USAID (I) 2008,
p. 3.
208.
^ World Resources Report 2011,
p. 3.
209.
^ Jump up to:a b c World Resources Report 2011,
p. 5.
211.
^ World Bank (XIII).
212.
^ Baringanire, Malik & Banerjee
2014, p. 1.
213.
^ AfDB & OECD Development Centre
2006, p. 439.
214.
^ Tancott 2014.
215.
^ Jump up to:a b c MININFRA 2013,
p. 34.
216.
^ MININFRA 2013,
p. 67.
217.
^ MININFRA 2013,
p. 32.
218.
^ Jump up to:a b Centre For Aviation 2014.
219.
^ Tumwebaze 2015.
220.
^ MININFRA 2017.
221.
^ Senelwa 2015.
222.
^ Jump up to:a b MININFRA 2013,
p. 43.
223.
^ Jump up to:a b National Institute of Statistics
of Rwanda 2015.
224.
^ National Institute of Statistics
of Rwanda 2014, p. 8.
225.
^ CIA (III) 2011.
226.
^ Banda 2015.
227.
^ Straus 2013,
p. 215.
228.
^ Streissguth 2007,
p. 11.
229.
^ Kigali City.
230.
^ Jump up to:a b Percival & Homer-Dixon 1995.
231.
^ REMA (Chapter 2) 2009.
232.
^ Jump up to:a b City Population 2012.
233.
^ Jump up to:a b National Institute of Statistics
of Rwanda 2012, p. 29.
234.
^ Mamdani 2002,
p. 52.
236.
^ Prunier 1995,
p. 5.
237.
^ Mamdani 2002,
pp. 46–47.
238.
^ Mamdani 2002,
p. 47.
239.
^ Jefremovas 1995.
240.
^ Prunier 1995,
pp. 11–12.
241.
^ Coleman 2010.
242.
^ Kiwuwa 2012,
p. 71.
243.
^ Agence France-Presse 2002.
244.
^ Walker & April 2004.
245.
^ National Institute of Statistics
of Rwanda 2014, p. 17.
246.
^ Wiredu et al. 2006,
pp. 236–237.
247.
^ Jump up to:a b Université Laval 2010.
248.
^ Samuelson & Freedman 2010.
249.
^ Jump up to:a b Tabaro 2015.
250.
^ Stanford University Swahili
Department.
251.
^ Nakayima 2010.
252.
^ Gmünder 2007,
p. 1216.
253.
^ U.S. Department of State 2016.
255.
^ Jump up to:a b Rwanda Development Gateway.
257.
^ Briggs 2004.
258.
^ Adekunle 2007,
pp. 135–136.
259.
^ Adekunle 2007,
p. 139.
260.
^ Mbabazi 2008.
261.
^ Adekunle 2007,
pp. 68–70.
262.
^ Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 243–244.
263.
^ Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 31.
264.
^ Ntambara 2009.
265.
^ Adekunle 2007,
p. 75.
267.
^ Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 29.
268.
^ Milmo 2006.
269.
^ Fegley 2016,
pp. 55–56.
270.
^ Government of Rwanda (I).
271.
^ Watson, Renzi & Viggiani 2010,
p. 25.
272.
^ Jump up to:a b Rwanda Governance Board.
273.
^ Jump up to:a b c Adekunle 2007,
p. 81.
274.
^ Jump up to:a b c Adekunle 2007,
p. 13.
275.
^ Auzias 2007,
p. 74.
276.
^ Jump up to:a b Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 66.
277.
^ Anyango 2010.
278.
^ Nzabuheraheza 2005.
279.
^ Bralirwa (I).
280.
^ Bralirwa (II).
281.
^ Bralirwa (III).
282.
^ Ngarambe 2012.
283.
^ Craig 2012.
284.
^ Kezio-Musoke 2014.
285.
^ CyclingNews.com 2012.
286.
^ MINISPOC 2012,
p. 18.
287.
^ McCracken & Colucci 2014,
pp. 86–90.
288.
^ Ndengeye 2014,
pp. 125–128.
289.
^ Aglietti 2014.
290.
^ BBC News (XI) 2014.
291.
^ Hoye et al. 2015,
p. 206.
292.
^ Robbins 2013.
293.
^ Willgoss 2014.
294.
^ Jump up to:a b BBC Sport (I) 2012.
295.
^ Jump up to:a b International Paralympic
Committee 2015.
296.
^ BBC Sport (II) 2010.
297.
^ Office of the Prime Minister 2014.
298.
^ Bishumba 2015.
299.
^ Mackay 2009.
300.
^ International Basketball
Federation 2011.
301.
^ Carlin 2003.
302.
^ Copnall 2004.
303.
^ Montague 2014,
p. 67.
304.
^ Mugabe & Kamasa 2014.
305.
^ Schöggl 2015.
307.
^ MINEDUC 2010,
p. 2.
308.
^ Jump up to:a b Williams, Abbott & Mupenzi
2015, p. 935.
309.
^ Williams, Abbott & Mupenzi
2015, p. 931.
310.
^ Briggs & Booth 2006,
p. 27.
311.
^ McGreal 2009.
312.
^ Koenig 2014.
313.
^ MacGregor 2014.
314.
^ Rutayisire 2013.
315.
^ World Bank (III).
316.
^ World Bank (I).
317.
^ Drobac & Naughton 2014.
318.
^ World Bank (IV).
319.
^ Bowdler 2010.
320.
^ Evans 2014.
321.
^ World Bank (V).
322.
^ World Bank (VI).
323.
^ Jump up to:a b WHO 2008.
324.
^ Jump up to:a b Rosenberg 2012.
325.
^ USAID (II) 2014.
327.
^ "HIV/AIDS,
Malaria and other diseases".
United Nations in Rwanda. Archived from
the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 20 May2016.
328.
^ World Bank (VII).
329.
^ World Bank (VIII).
330.
^ World Bank (IX).
331.
^ Emery 2013.
333.
^ Jump up to:a b c USAID (III) 2015.
334.
^ "Health Information for
Travelers to Rwanda". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from
the original on 9 June 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
335.
^ Partners In Health 2013.
336.
^ UNDP (II) 2015.
337.
^ UNDP (III) 2015.
338.
^ UNDP (IV) 2015.
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·
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·
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