Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
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Not
to be confused with the neighbouring Democratic
Republic of the Congo; for similarly
named entities, see Republic of the Congo (disambiguation).
"RotC"
redirects here. For other uses, see ROTC
(disambiguation).
The Republic
of the Congo (
pronunciation (help·info) French: République
du Congo, Kongo: Repubilika
ya Kôngo), also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo
Republic[7][8] or
simply either Congo or the Congo is a country
located in the western coast of Central Africa.
To the west lies Gabon; Cameroon to
its northwest and the Central
African Republic to its
northeast; the Democratic
Republic of the Congo to the
southeast and the Angolan exclave of Cabinda to
its south; and the Atlantic Ocean to
its southwest. The official language is French.
The region was
dominated by Bantu-speaking
tribes at least 3,000 years ago, who built trade links leading into the Congo River basin.
Congo was formerly part of the French
colony of Equatorial
Africa.[9] The
Republic of the Congo was established on 28 November 1958 and gained
independence from France in 1960. It was a Marxist–Leninist state
from 1969 to 1992, under the name People's
Republic of the Congo. The sovereign state has
had multi-party elections since 1992, although a democratically elected
government was ousted in the 1997 Republic of the Congo Civil War,
and President Denis Sassou
Nguesso, who first came to power in
1979, has ruled for 35 of the past 40 years.
The Republic of the
Congo has become the fourth-largest oil producer in
the Gulf of Guinea,
providing the country with a degree of prosperity despite political and
economic instability in some areas and unequal distribution of oil revenue
nationwide. Congo's
economy is heavily dependent on the
oil sector, and economic growth has slowed considerably since the post-2015 drop in oil prices.
Contents
·
1History
o
2.1Media
·
4Economy
History[edit]
Main
article: History
of the Republic of the Congo
Pre-colonial[edit]
Bantu-speaking
peoples who founded tribes during
the Bantu expansions largely
displaced and absorbed the earliest inhabitants of the region, the Pygmy people,
about 1500 BC. The Bakongo,
a Bantu ethnic group that also occupied parts of present-day Angola, Gabon, and
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, formed the basis for ethnic affinities
and rivalries among those countries. Several Bantu kingdoms—notably those of
the Kongo,
the Loango,
and the Teke—built
trade links leading into the Congo River basin.[10]
The Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached
the mouth of the Congo in 1484.[11] Commercial
relationships quickly grew between the inland Bantu kingdoms and European
merchants who traded various commodities, manufactured goods, and people
captured from the hinterlands. After centuries as a major hub for transatlantic
trade, direct European colonization of the Congo river delta began in the late
19th century, subsequently eroding the power of the Bantu societies in the
region.[12]
French colonial era[edit]
Main
articles: French Congo and French
Equatorial Africa
The
court of N'Gangue
M'voumbe Niambi, from the
book Description of Africa (1668)
The area north of the
Congo River came under French sovereignty in 1880 as a result of Pierre de Brazza's
treaty with King Makoko[13] of
the Bateke.[11] This
Congo Colony became known first as French Congo,
then as Middle Congo in 1903. In 1908, France organized French
Equatorial Africa (AEF),
comprising Middle Congo, Gabon, Chad,
and Oubangui-Chari (the
modern Central
African Republic). The French
designated Brazzaville as
the federal capital. Economic development during the first 50 years of colonial
rule in Congo centered on natural-resource extraction. The methods were often
brutal: construction of the Congo–Ocean
Railroad following World War I has
been estimated to have cost at least 14,000 lives.[11]
During the Nazi
occupation of France during World War II,
Brazzaville functioned as the symbolic capital of Free France between
1940 and 1943.[14] The Brazzaville
Conference of 1944 heralded a
period of major reform in French colonial policy. Congo benefited from the
postwar expansion of colonial administrative and infrastructure spending as a
result of its central geographic location within AEF and the federal capital at
Brazzaville.[10] It
also received a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution
that established the Fourth
Republic.
Following the
revision of the French
constitution that established the Fifth
Republic in 1958, the AEF dissolved
into its constituent parts, each of which became an autonomous colony within
the French Community.
During these reforms, Middle Congo became known as the Republic of the Congo in
1958[15] and
published its first constitution in 1959.[16] Antagonism
between the Mbochis (who
favored Jacques Opangault)
and the Laris and Kongos (who
favored Fulbert Youlou,
the first black mayor elected in French Equatorial Africa) resulted in a series
of riots in Brazzaville in February 1959, which the French Army subdued.[17]
New elections took
place in April 1959. By the time the Congo became independent in August 1960,
Opangault, the former opponent of Youlou, agreed to serve under him. Youlou
became the first President of the Republic of the Congo.[18] Since
the political tension was so high in Pointe-Noire,
Youlou moved the capital to Brazzaville.
Post-independence era[edit]
Alphonse
Massamba-Débat's one-party rule
(1963–1968) attempted to implement a political economic strategy
of "scientific
socialism"
The Republic of the
Congo received full independence from France on 15 August 1960. Youlou ruled as
the country's first president until labour elements and rival political parties
instigated a three-day
uprising that ousted him.[19] The
Congolese military briefly took charge of the country, and installed a civilian
provisional government headed by Alphonse
Massamba-Débat.
Under the 1963
constitution, Massamba-Débat was elected President for a five-year term.[10] During Massamba-Débat's
term in office the regime
adopted "scientific
socialism" as the country's
constitutional ideology.[20] In
1965, Congo established relations with the Soviet Union,
the People's Republic of China, North Korea and North Vietnam.[20] On
the night between February 14 and 15, 1965, three prominent public officials in
the Republic of the Congo were kidnapped; Lazare
Matsocota (prosecutor of the
Republic), Joseph
Pouabou (president of the Supreme
Court) and Massouémé
Anselme (director of the Congolese
Information Agency). The bodies of two of them were later found, mutilated, by
the Congo River.[21][22] Massamba-Débat's
regime also invited several hundred Cuban army
troops into the country to train his party's militia units and these troops
helped his government survive a coup d'état in 1966 led
by paratroopers loyal to future President Marien Ngouabi.
Nevertheless, Massamba-Débat was unable to reconcile various institutional,
tribal and ideological factions within the country[20] and
his regime ended abruptly with a bloodless coup in
September 1968.
Marien Ngouabi changed
the country's name to the People's
Republic of the Congo, declaring it to
be Africa's
first Marxist–Leninist state. He was assassinated in 1977.
Ngouabi, who had
participated in the coup, assumed the presidency on 31 December 1968. One year
later, President Ngouabi proclaimed Congo Africa's first "people's
republic", the People's
Republic of the Congo, and announced the
decision of the National Revolutionary Movement to change its name to the Congolese
Labour Party (PCT). He survived an attempted coup in 1972 but
was assassinated on 16 March 1977. An 11-member Military Committee of the
Party (CMP) was then named to head an interim government, with Joachim
Yhombi-Opango to serve as
President of the Republic. Two years later, Yhombi-Opango was forced from power
and Denis Sassou
Nguesso become the new president.[10]
Sassou Nguesso
aligned the country with the Eastern Bloc and
signed a twenty-year friendship pact with the Soviet Union. Over the years,
Sassou had to rely more on political
repression and less on patronage to
maintain his dictatorship.[23]
Pascal Lissouba,
who became Congo's first elected president (1992–1997) during the period of
multi-party democracy, attempted to implement economic reforms with IMF backing
to liberalize the economy. In June 1996, the IMF approved a three-year SDR69.5m
(US$100m) enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) and was on the verge
of announcing a renewed annual agreement when civil war broke out in Congo in
mid-1997.[24]
Congo's democratic
progress was derailed in 1997, when Lissouba and Sassou started to fight for
power in the civil war.
As presidential elections scheduled for July 1997 approached, tensions between
the Lissouba and Sassou camps mounted. On 5 June, President Lissouba's
government forces surrounded Sassou's compound in Brazzaville and Sassou
ordered members of his private militia (known as "Cobras") to resist.
Thus began a four-month conflict that destroyed or damaged much of Brazzaville
and caused tens of thousands of civilian deaths. In early October, the Angolan
government began an invasion of Congo to install Sassou in power. In
mid-October, the Lissouba government fell. Soon thereafter, Sassou declared
himself president.[10]
A
pro-constitutional reform rally in Brazzaville during October 2015. The
constitution's controversial reforms were subsequently approved in a disputed
election which saw demonstrations and violence.
In the
controversial elections in 2002,
Sassou won with almost 90% of the vote cast. His two main rivals, Lissouba and
Bernard Kolelas, were prevented from competing and the only remaining credible
rival, André Milongo,
advised his supporters to boycott the elections and then withdrew from the
race.[25] A
new constitution,
agreed upon by referendum in January 2002,
granted the president new powers, extended his term to seven years, and
introduced a new bicameral assembly. International observers took issue with
the organization of the presidential election and the constitutional
referendum, both of which were reminiscent in their organization of Congo's era
of the one-party state.[26] Following
the presidential elections, fighting restarted in the Pool region between
government forces and rebels led by Pastor Ntumi;
a peace treaty to end the conflict was signed in April 2003.[27]
Sassou also won the
following presidential election in July 2009.[28] According
to the Congolese Observatory of Human Rights, a non-governmental organization,
the election was marked by "very low" turnout and "fraud and
irregularities".[29] In
March 2015 Sassou announced that he wanted to run for yet another term in
office and a constitutional referendum in
October resulted in a changed constitution which allowed him to run during
the 2016 presidential election.
He won the election believed by many to be fraudulent. After violent protests
in the capital, Sassou attacked the Pool region, where the Ninja rebels of
the civil war used to be based, in what was believed to be a distraction. This
led to a revival of the Ninja rebels who launched attacks against the army in
April 2016, leading 80,000 people to flee their homes. A ceasefire deal was
signed in December 2017.[30]
Government[edit]
Denis Sassou
Nguesso served as President from
1979 to 1992 and has remained in power ever since his rebel forces ousted
President Pascal Lissouba during
the 1997 Civil War.
Main
article: Politics of the Republic of the Congo
See
also: Foreign relations of the Republic of the Congo, Military of the Republic of the Congo,
and Biens mal acquis
Congo-Brazzaville
has had a multi-party
political system since the
early 1990s, although the system is heavily dominated by President Denis Sassou
Nguesso; he has lacked serious
competition in the presidential elections held under his rule. Sassou Nguesso
is backed by his own Congolese
Labour Party (French: Parti
Congolais du Travail) as well as a
range of smaller parties.
Sassou's regime has
been hit by corruption revelations
despite attempts to censor them. One French investigation found over 110 bank
accounts and dozens of lavish properties in France; Sassou denounced
embezzlement investigations as "racist" and "colonial".[31][32][33] Denis
Christel Sassou-Nguesso, son of Denis Sassou Nguesso, has been named in
association with the Panama Papers.[34]
On 27 March 2015,
Sassou Nguesso announced that his government would hold a referendum on
changing the country's 2002 constitution to allow him to run for a third
consecutive term in office.[35] On
25 October the government held a referendum to allow Sassou Nguesso to run in
the next election. The government claimed that the proposal was approved by 92%
of voters with 72% of eligible voters participating. The opposition, who
boycotted the referendum, said that the government's statistics were false and
the vote was a fake one.[36]
The election raised
questions and was accompanied by civil unrest and police shootings of
protesters;[37] at
least 18 people were killed by security forces during opposition rallies
leading up to the referendum held in October.
Media[edit]
Main
article: Media
of the Republic of the Congo
In 2008, the main
media were owned by the government, but much more privately run forms of media
were being created. There is one government-owned television station and around
10 small private television channels.
Human rights[edit]
Main
article: Human rights in the Republic of the Congo
Many Pygmies belong
from birth to Bantus in a relationship many refer to as slavery.[38][39] The
Congolese Human Rights Observatory says that the Pygmies are treated as
property the same way "pets" are.[38] On
30 December 2010, the Congolese
parliament adopted a law for the
promotion and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples.[clarification
needed] This
law is the first of its kind in Africa, and its adoption is a historic
development for indigenous peoples on the continent.[40][needs update]
Administrative divisions[edit]
Map
of the Republic of the Congo exhibiting its twelve departments.
Main
articles: Departments of the Republic of the Congo, Communes of the Republic of the Congo,
and Districts of the Republic of the Congo
The Republic of the
Congo is divided into 12 départements (departments).
Departments are divided into communes and districts.[41] These
are:
|
·
Bouenza ·
Cuvette ·
Kouilou ·
Lékoumou |
·
Likouala ·
Niari ·
Plateaux ·
Pool ·
Sangha |
Geography
and climate[edit]
Main
article: Geography of the Republic of the Congo
Climate
diagram for Brazzaville
Republic
of the Congo map of Köppen climate classification.
Congo is located in
the central-western part of sub-Saharan Africa,
along the Equator,
lying between latitudes 4°N and 5°S,
and longitudes 11° and 19°E.
To the south and east of it is the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. It is also
bounded by Gabon to
the west, Cameroon and
the Central
African Republic to the north,
and Cabinda (Angola)
to the southwest. It has a short coast on the Atlantic Ocean.
The capital, Brazzaville,
is located on the Congo River, in the south of the country, immediately across
from Kinshasa,
the capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The southwest of
the country is a coastal plain for which the primary drainage is the Kouilou-Niari River;
the interior of the country consists of a central plateau between two basins to
the south and north. Forests are under increasing exploitation pressure.[42]
Since the country
is located on the Equator, the climate is consistent year-round, with the
average day temperature a humid 24 °C (75 °F) and nights generally
between 16 °C (61 °F) and 21 °C (70 °F). The average yearly
rainfall ranges from 1,100 millimetres (43 in) in the Niari Valley in
the south to over 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in central parts of the
country. The dry season is from June to August, while in the majority of the
country the wet season has two rainfall maxima: one in March–May and another in
September–November.[43]
In 2006–07,
researchers from the Wildlife
Conservation Society studied
gorillas in heavily forested regions centered on the Ouesso
district of the Sangha Region.
They suggest a population on the order of 125,000 western
lowland gorillas, whose isolation
from humans has been largely preserved by inhospitable swamps.[44]
Economy[edit]
Main
article: Economy
of the Republic of the Congo
See
also: Hydrocarbon
exploration and List of companies based in the Republic of the
Congo
Cassava is
an important food crop in the Republic of the Congo.
The economy is a
mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based
largely on petroleum,[45] support
services, and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing.
Petroleum extraction has supplanted forestry as
the mainstay of the economy. In 2008, oil sector accounted for 65% of the GDP,
85% of government revenue, and 92% of exports.[46] The
country also has large untapped mineral wealth.
In the early 1980s,
rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale
development projects with GDP growth averaging 5% annually, one of the highest
rates in Africa. The government has mortgaged a substantial portion of its
petroleum earnings, contributing to a shortage of revenues. 12
January 1994 devaluation of Franc Zone currencies
by 50% resulted in inflation of 46% in 1994, but inflation has subsided since.[47]
Young
women learning to sew, Brazzaville
Economic reform
efforts continued with the support of international organizations, notably
the World Bank and
the International
Monetary Fund. The reform
program came to a halt in June 1997 when civil war erupted. When Sassou Nguesso
returned to power at the end of the war in October 1997, he publicly expressed
interest in moving forward on economic reforms and privatization and in
renewing cooperation with international financial institutions. However,
economic progress was badly hurt by slumping oil prices and the resumption of
armed conflict in December 1998, which worsened the republic's budget deficit.
The current
administration presides over an uneasy internal peace and faces difficult
economic problems of stimulating recovery and reducing poverty, despite
record-high oil prices since 2003. Natural gas and diamonds are also recent
major Congolese exports, although Congo was excluded from the Kimberley Process in
2004 amid allegations that most of its diamond exports were in fact being smuggled
out of the neighboring Democratic
Republic of the Congo; it was
re-admitted to the group in 2007.[48][49]
The Republic of the
Congo also has large untapped base metal, gold, iron and phosphate deposits.[50] The
country is a member of the Organization for the
Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[51] The
Congolese government signed an agreement in 2009 to lease 200,000 hectares of
land to South African farmers
to reduce its dependence on imports.[52][53]
The GDP of the
Republic of the Congo grew by 6% in 2014 and is expected to have grown by 7.5%
in 2015.[54][55]
In 2018, the
Republic of the Congo joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.[56]
Transportation[edit]
Main
article: Transport in the Republic of the Congo
Maya-Maya Airport in Brazzaville.
Transport in the
Republic of the Congo includes land, air and water transportation. The
country's rail system was built by forced
laborers during the 1930s and
largely remains in operation. There are also over 1000 km of paved roads
and two major international airports (Maya-Maya Airport and Pointe-Noire
Airport) which have flights to
destinations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The country also has a
large port on the Atlantic Ocean at Pointe-Noire and
others along the Congo River at Brazzaville and Impfondo.
Demographics[edit]
Main
article: Demographics of the Republic of the Congo
Religion in the Republic of the Congo by the Association
of Religion Data Archives (2015)[57]
Roman Catholic (52.9%)
Protestant and
Unknown Christian (35.6%)
Traditional
African religions (4.7%)
Other
religions (2.3%)
No
religion (3.0%)
Don't
know (1.4%)
|
Year |
Million |
||
|
1950 |
0.8 |
||
|
2000 |
3.2 |
||
|
2018 |
5.2 |
||
The Republic of the
Congo's sparse population is concentrated in the southwestern portion of the
country, leaving the vast areas of tropical jungle in
the north virtually uninhabited. Thus, Congo is one of the most urbanized
countries in Africa, with 70% of its total population living in a few urban
areas, namely in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire or
one of the small cities or villages lining the 534-kilometre (332 mi)
railway which connects the two cities. In rural areas, industrial and
commercial activity has declined rapidly in recent years, leaving rural
economies dependent on the government for support and subsistence.[58]
Ethnically and
linguistically the population of the Republic of the Congo is diverse—Ethnologue recognises
62 spoken languages in the country[59]—but
can be grouped into three categories. The Kongo are
the largest ethnic group and form roughly half of the population. The most
significant subgroups of the Kongo are Laari,
in Brazzaville and Pool regions, and the Vili,
around Pointe-Noire and along the Atlantic coast. The second largest group are
the Teke,
who live to the north of Brazzaville, with 17% of the population. Boulangui (M’Boshi)
live in the northwest and in Brazzaville and form 12% of the population.[60][61] Pygmies make
up 2% of Congo's population.[62]
Before the 1997
war, about 9,000 Europeans and
other non-Africans lived in Congo, most of whom were French;
only a fraction of this number remains.[58] Around
300 American expatriates
reside in the Congo.[58]
According to CIA
World Factbook, the people of the Republic of the Congo are largely a mix
of Catholics (33.1%), Awakening
Lutherans (22.3%) and other Protestants (19.9%).
Followers of Islam make
up 1.6%; this is primarily due to an influx of foreign workers into the urban
centers.[9]
According to a
2011–12 survey, total fertility rate was 5.1 children born per woman, with 4.5
in urban areas and 6.5 in rural areas.[63]
|
Largest cities or towns in Republic of
the Congo |
|||||
|
|
Rank |
|
Department |
Pop. |
|
|
|
1 |
Brazzaville |
Brazzaville |
1,373,382 |
|
|
|
2 |
Pointe-Noire |
Pointe-Noire |
715,334 |
|
|
|
3 |
Dolisie |
Niari |
83,798 |
|
|
|
4 |
Nkayi |
Bouenza |
71,62 |
|
|
|
5 |
Impfondo |
Likouala |
33,911 |
|
|
|
6 |
Ouésso |
Sangha |
28,179 |
|
|
|
7 |
Madingou |
Bouenza |
25,713 |
|
|
|
8 |
Owando |
Cuvette |
24,736 |
|
|
|
9 |
Sibiti |
Lékoumou |
22,951 |
|
|
|
10 |
Loutété |
Bouenza |
19,212 |
|
Health[edit]
Further
information: Health
in the Republic of the Congo
Public expenditure
health was at 8.9% of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure was at 1.3%.[64] As
of 2012, the HIV/AIDS prevalence
was at 2.8% among 15- to 49-year-olds.[9] Health
expenditure was at US$30 per capita in 2004.[64] A
large proportion of the population is undernourished,[64] with
malnutrition being a problem in Congo-Brazzaville.[65] There
were 20 physicians per 100,000 persons in the early 2000s (decade).[64]
As of 2010,
the maternal mortality rate
was 560 deaths/100,000 live births, and the infant mortality rate
was 59.34 deaths/1,000 live births.[9] Female
genital mutilation (FGM) is rare
in the country, being confined to limited geographic areas of the country.[66]
Cultural
heritage[edit]
Main
article: Culture
of the Republic of the Congo
The Republic of the
Congo has a wide variety of natural landscapes, ranging from the savannah
plains in the North Niari flooded forests, to the vast Congo River, to rugged
mountains and forest of Mayombe,
and including 170 km of beaches along the Atlantic coast.[67] The
numerous ethnic groups and various political structures express a rich cultural
diversity and forms of art.
Among the best
known are Vili nail
fetishes, Beembe statuettes
that are full of expression; the masks of the Punu and Kwele, Kota reliquaries, Teke fetishes,
and cemeteries with monumental tombs are examples of this variety. The Lari people
also have unique artifacts.
The Republic of the
Congo also has considerable colonial architectural heritage, which they are
preserving as part of their history. Restoration of architectural works is
underway in Brazzaville, such as the Basilica of Sainte-Anne du Congo, which
was completed in 2011.[68]
Because of problems
with the communication network, the country is not ready to build on heritage tourism.
It is working to improve the network that supports its hotels and related
tourism facilities in Pointe Noire and Brazzaville. Many sites are difficult to
reach in overland visits. Some of the South's most populous and developed
locations are often the least accessible. For example, the massive Chaillu Mountains are
almost impossible to visit.
The arts[edit]
Congolese singers
have become known internationally: the Franco-Congolese rapper Passi's work is
broadcast in France, and he has released several hit albums, such as Temptations,
with the famous song "I zap and I mate." M'Passi, singer of the
former group Melgroove; rappers Calbo of Arsenik group, Ben J of Neg Marrons,
Mystic, and RCFA are also increasingly known. The group Bisso Na Bisso and
Casimir Zao are also notable.
The Republic of
Congo has several writers recognised in Africa and the French-speaking
world: Alain Mabanckou, Jean-Baptiste
Tati Loutard, Jeannette
Balou Tchichelle, Henri Lopes, Lassy Mbouity,
and Tchicaya U Tam'si.
Artists have struggled
to build a film industry. After their promising start in the 1970s, the
troubled political situation and the closure of cinemas made production of
films difficult. Rather than seeking to make a feature film for distribution,
generally filmmakers directly broadcast their productions as videos on the
internet. Congolese culture, art, and media have suffered from a lack of
investment due to the unstable political conditions and warfare.
Education[edit]
Main
article: Education in the Republic of the Congo
School
children in the classroom, Republic of the Congo
Public expenditure
of the GDP was less in 2002–05 than in 1991.[64] Public
education is theoretically free and mandatory for under-16-year-olds[69] but,
in practice, expenses exist.[69] In
2005 net primary enrollment rate was 44%, a significant drop from the 79% in
1991.[64] Education
between ages six and sixteen is compulsory. Pupils who complete six years of
primary school and seven years of secondary school obtain a baccalaureate.
The country has
universities. At university, students can obtain a bachelor's degree in three
years and a master's after five. Marien
Ngouabi University—which offers
courses in medicine, law, and other fields—is the country's only public
university.
Instruction at all
levels is in French,
and the educational system as a whole models the French system.
See
also[edit]
·
Republic
of the Congo portal
·
Outline
of the Republic of the Congo
·
Index of Republic of the Congo–related articles
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Further
reading[edit]
·
Maria
Petringa, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006) ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0
Yorumlar